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GNU LilyPond — Notation Reference
The music typesetter
This document is also available as a PDF and as a HTML indexed multiple pages.
This file documents GNU LilyPond.
Copyright 1999–2009 by the authors
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation License”.
This is the Notation Reference (NR) for GNU LilyPond version 2.12.2. For more information about how this fits with the other documentation, see About the documentation.
More information can be found at http://www.lilypond.org/. The website contains on-line copies of this and other documentation.
We want to dedicate this program to all the friends that we met through music.
Han-Wen and Jan
1. Musical notation | ||
2. Specialist notation | Notation which is only used for specific purposes. | |
3. General input and output | General information about lilypond input and output. | |
4. Spacing issues | Display of output on paper. | |
5. Changing defaults | Tuning output. | |
6. Interfaces for programmers | Expert usage. | |
Appendices | ||
---|---|---|
A. Literature list | Reference works about music notation. | |
B. Notation manual tables | Tables and charts. | |
C. Cheat sheet | Summary of LilyPond syntax. | |
D. GNU Free Documentation License | License of this document. | |
E. LilyPond command index | ||
F. LilyPond index |
[ << Top ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Top ] | [ Up : Top ] | [ Pitches > ] |
1. Musical notation
This chapter explains how to create musical notation.
1.1 Pitches | Writing and display the pitches of notes. | |
1.2 Rhythms | Writing and displaying the durations of notes. | |
1.3 Expressive marks | Adding expression to notes. | |
1.4 Repeats | Repeat music. | |
1.5 Simultaneous notes | More than one note at once. | |
1.6 Staff notation | Displaying staves. | |
1.7 Editorial annotations | Special notation to increase legibility. | |
1.8 Text | Adding text to scores. |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Musical notation ] | [ Up : Musical notation ] | [ Writing pitches > ] |
1.1 Pitches
This section discusses how to specify the pitch of notes. There are three steps to this process: input, modification, and output.
1.1.1 Writing pitches | ||
1.1.2 Changing multiple pitches | ||
1.1.3 Displaying pitches | ||
1.1.4 Note heads |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Pitches ] | [ Up : Pitches ] | [ Absolute octave entry > ] |
1.1.1 Writing pitches
This section discusses how to input pitches. There are two different ways to place notes in octaves: absolute and relative mode. In most cases, relative mode will be more convenient.
Absolute octave entry | ||
Relative octave entry | ||
Accidentals | ||
Note names in other languages |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Writing pitches ] | [ Up : Writing pitches ] | [ Relative octave entry > ] |
Absolute octave entry
A pitch name is specified using lowercase letters a
through g
. The note names c
to b
are
engraved in the octave below middle C.
\clef bass c d e f g a b c d e f g
Other octaves may be specified with a single quote ('
)
or comma (,
) character. Each '
raises the
pitch by one octave; each ,
lowers the pitch by an
octave.
\clef treble c' c'' e' g d'' d' d c \clef bass c, c,, e, g d,, d, d c
See also
Music Glossary: Pitch names.
Snippets: Pitches.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Absolute octave entry ] | [ Up : Writing pitches ] | [ Accidentals > ] |
Relative octave entry
When octaves are specified in absolute mode it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in the wrong octave. Relative octave mode reduces these errors since most of the time it is not necessary to indicate any octaves at all. Furthermore, in absolute mode a single mistake may be difficult to spot, while in relative mode a single error puts the rest of the piece off by one octave.
\relative startpitch musicexpr
In relative mode, each note is assumed to be as close to the previous note as possible. This means that the octave of each pitch inside musicexpr is calculated as follows:
- If no octave changing mark is used on a pitch, its octave is calculated so that the interval with the previous note is less than a fifth. This interval is determined without considering accidentals.
-
An octave changing mark
'
or,
can be added to respectively raise or lower a pitch by an extra octave, relative to the pitch calculated without an octave mark. -
Multiple octave changing marks can be used. For example,
''
and,,
will alter the pitch by two octaves. -
The pitch of the first note is relative to
startpitch
. startpitch is specified in absolute octave mode, and it is recommended that it be a octave ofc
.
Here is the relative mode shown in action:
\relative c { \clef bass c d e f g a b c d e f g }
Octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth:
\relative c'' { c g c f, c' a, e'' c }
A note sequence without a single octave mark can nevertheless span large intervals:
\relative c { c f b e a d g c }
If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is
used as the reference point for the octave placement of a
following note or chord. Inside chords, the next note is always
relative to the preceding one. Examine the next example
carefully, paying attention to the c
notes.
\relative c' { c <c e g> <c' e g'> <c, e, g''> }
As explained above, the octave of pitches is calculated only with the note names, regardless of any alterations. Therefore, an E-double-sharp following a B will be placed higher, while an F-double-flat will be placed lower. In other words, a double-augmented fourth is considered a smaller interval than a double-diminished fifth, regardless of the number of semitones that each interval contains.
\relative c'' { c2 fis c2 ges b2 eisis b2 feses }
See also
Music Glossary: fifth, interval, Pitch names.
Notation Reference: Octave checks.
Snippets: Pitches.
Internals Reference: RelativeOctaveMusic.
Known issues and warnings
The relative conversion will not affect \transpose
,
\chordmode
or \relative
sections in its argument.
To use relative mode within transposed music, an additional
\relative
must be placed inside \transpose
.
If no startpitch is specified for \relative
,
then c'
is assumed. However, this is a deprecated
option and may disappear in future versions, so its use is
discouraged.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Relative octave entry ] | [ Up : Writing pitches ] | [ Note names in other languages > ] |
Accidentals
Note: New users are sometimes confused about accidentals and
key signatures. In LilyPond, note names are the raw input; key
signatures and clefs determine how this raw input is displayed.
An unaltered note like |
A sharp pitch is made by adding is
to the note
name, and a flat pitch by adding es
. As you
might expect, a double sharp or double flat
is made by adding isis
or eses
. This syntax is
derived from Dutch note naming conventions. To use other names
for accidentals, see Note names in other languages.
ais1 aes aisis aeses
A natural will cancel the effect of an accidental or key signature. However, naturals are not encoded into the note name syntax with a suffix; a natural pitch is shown as a simple note name:
a4 aes a2
Quarter tones may be added; the following is a series of Cs with increasing pitches:
ceseh1 ces ceh c cih cis cisih
Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
print them manually. A reminder accidental can be forced by
adding an exclamation mark !
after the pitch. A
cautionary accidental (i.e., an accidental within parentheses) can
be obtained by adding the question mark ?
after the
pitch. These extra accidentals can also be used to produce
natural signs.
cis cis cis! cis? c c c! c?
Accidentals on tied notes are only printed at the beginning of a new system:
cis1 ~ cis ~ \break cis
Selected Snippets
Preventing extra naturals from being automatically added
In accordance with standard typesetting rules, a natural sign is
printed before a sharp or flat if a previous accidental on the same
note needs to be canceled. To change this behavior, set the
extraNatural
property to "false" in the Staff
context.
\relative c'' { aeses4 aes ais a \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f aeses4 aes ais a }
Makam example
Makam is a type of melody from Turkey using 1/9th-tone
microtonal alterations. Consult the initialization file
makam.ly
(see the ‘Learning Manual 2.12.2,
4.6.3 Other sources of information’ for the location of this file)
for details of pitch names and alterations.
% Initialize makam settings \include "makam.ly" \relative c' { \set Staff.keySignature = #`((3 . ,BAKIYE) (6 . ,(- KOMA))) c4 cc db fk gbm4 gfc gfb efk fk4 db cc c }
See also
Music Glossary: sharp, flat, double sharp, double flat, Pitch names, quarter tone.
Learning Manual: Accidentals and key signatures.
Notation Reference: Automatic accidentals, Annotational accidentals (musica ficta), Note names in other languages.
Snippets: Pitches.
Internals Reference: Accidental_engraver, Accidental, AccidentalCautionary, accidental-interface.
Known issues and warnings
There are no generally accepted standards for denoting quarter-tone accidentals, so LilyPond’s symbol does not conform to any standard.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Accidentals ] | [ Up : Writing pitches ] | [ Changing multiple pitches > ] |
Note names in other languages
There are predefined sets of note and accidental names for various
other languages. To use them, include the language-specific init
file listed below. For example, to use English notes names, add
\include "english.ly"
to the top of the input file.
The available language files and the note names they define are:
Language File
Note Names
‘nederlands.ly’
c d e f g a bes b
‘arabic.ly’
do re mi fa sol la sib si
‘catalan.ly’
do re mi fa sol la sib si
‘deutsch.ly’
c d e f g a b h
‘english.ly’
c d e f g a bf b
‘espanol.ly’
do re mi fa sol la sib si
‘italiano.ly’
do re mi fa sol la sib si
‘norsk.ly’
c d e f g a b h
‘portugues.ly’
do re mi fa sol la sib si
‘suomi.ly’
c d e f g a b h
‘svenska.ly’
c d e f g a b h
‘vlaams.ly’
do re mi fa sol la sib si
and the accidental suffixes they define are:
Language File
sharp
flat
double sharp
double flat
‘nederlands.ly’
-is
-es
-isis
-eses
‘arabic.ly’
-d
-b
-dd
-bb
‘catalan.ly’
-d/-s
-b
-dd/-ss
-bb
‘deutsch.ly’
-is
-es
-isis
-eses
‘english.ly’
-s/-sharp
-f/-flat
-ss/-x/-sharpsharp
-ff/-flatflat
‘espanol.ly’
-s
-b
-ss
-bb
‘italiano.ly’
-d
-b
-dd
-bb
‘norsk.ly’
-iss/-is
-ess/-es
-ississ/-isis
-essess/-eses
‘portugues.ly’
-s
-b
-ss
-bb
‘suomi.ly’
-is
-es
-isis
-eses
‘svenska.ly’
-iss
-ess
-ississ
-essess
‘vlaams.ly’
-k
-b
-kk
-bb
In Dutch, aes
is contracted to as
, but both forms
are accepted in LilyPond. Similarly, both es
and
ees
are accepted. This also applies to
aeses
/ ases
and
eeses
/ eses
. Sometimes only these
contracted names are defined in the corresponding language files.
a2 as e es a ases e eses
Some music uses microtones whose alterations are fractions of a ‘normal’ sharp or flat. The note names for quarter-tones defined in the various language files are listed in the following table. Here the prefixes semi- and sesqui- mean ‘half’ and ‘one and a half’, respectively. For the other languages, no special names have been defined yet.
Language File
semi-sharp
semi-flat
sesqui-sharp
sesqui-flat
‘nederlands.ly’
-ih
-eh
-isih
-eseh
‘arabic.ly’
-sd
-sb
-dsd
-bsb
‘deutsch.ly’
-ih
-eh
-isih
-eseh
‘english.ly’
-qs
-qf
-tqs
-tqf
‘italiano.ly’
-sd
-sb
-dsd
-bsb
‘portugues.ly’
-sqt
-bqt
-stqt
-btqt
See also
Music Glossary: Pitch names.
Snippets: Pitches.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Note names in other languages ] | [ Up : Pitches ] | [ Octave checks > ] |
1.1.2 Changing multiple pitches
This section discusses how to modify pitches.
Octave checks | ||
Transpose |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Changing multiple pitches ] | [ Up : Changing multiple pitches ] | [ Transpose > ] |
Octave checks
In relative mode, it is easy to forget an octave changing mark. Octave checks make such errors easier to find by displaying a warning and correcting the octave if a note is found in an unexpected octave.
To check the octave of a note, specify the absolute octave after
the =
symbol. This example will generate a warning
(and change the pitch) because the second note is the absolute
octave d''
instead of d'
as indicated by the octave
correction.
\relative c'' { c2 d='4 d e2 f }
The octave of notes may also be checked with the
\octaveCheck
controlpitch command.
controlpitch is specified in absolute mode. This checks
that the interval between the previous note and the
controlpitch is within a fourth (i.e., the normal
calculation of relative mode). If this check fails, a warning is
printed, but the previous note is not changed. Future notes are
relative to the controlpitch.
\relative c'' { c2 d \octaveCheck c' e2 f }
Compare the two bars below. The first and third \octaveCheck
checks fail, but the second one does not fail.
\relative c'' { c4 f g f c4 \octaveCheck c' f \octaveCheck c' g \octaveCheck c' f }
See also
Snippets: Pitches.
Internals Reference: RelativeOctaveCheck.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Octave checks ] | [ Up : Changing multiple pitches ] | [ Displaying pitches > ] |
Transpose
A music expression can be transposed with \transpose
. The
syntax is
\transpose frompitch topitch musicexpr
This means that musicexpr is transposed by the interval between the pitches frompitch and topitch: any note with pitch frompitch is changed to topitch and any other note is transposed by the same interval. Both pitches are entered in absolute mode.
Consider a piece written in the key of D-major. It can be transposed up to E-major; note that the key signature is automatically transposed as well.
\transpose d e { \relative c' { \key d \major d4 fis a d } }
If a part written in C (normal concert pitch) is to be played on the A clarinet (for which an A is notated as a C and thus sounds a minor third lower than notated), the appropriate part will be produced with:
\transpose a c' { \relative c' { \key c \major c4 d e g } }
Note that we specify \key c \major
explicitly. If we
do not specify a key signature, the notes will be transposed but
no key signature will be printed.
\transpose
distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
\transpose c cis
or \transpose c des
will
transpose up a semitone. The first version will print sharps and
the notes will remain on the same scale step, the second version
will print flats on the scale step above.
music = \relative c' { c d e f } \new Staff { \transpose c cis { \music } \transpose c des { \music } }
\transpose
may also be used in a different way, to input
written notes for a transposing instrument. The previous examples
show how to enter pitches in C (or concert pitch) and
typeset them for a transposing instrument, but the opposite is
also possible if you for example have a set of instrumental parts
and want to print a conductor’s score. For example, when entering
music for a B-flat trumpet that begins on a notated E (concert D),
one would write:
musicInBflat = { e4 … } \transpose c bes, \musicInBflat
To print this music in F (e.g., rearranging to a French horn) you
could wrap the existing music with another \transpose
:
musicInBflat = { e4 … } \transpose f c' { \transpose c bes, \musicInBflat }
For more information about transposing instruments, see Instrument transpositions.
Selected Snippets
Transposing music with minimum accidentals This example uses some Scheme code to enforce enharmonic modifications for notes in order to have the minimum number of accidentals. In this case, the following rules apply:
- Double accidentals should be removed
- B sharp -> C
- E sharp -> F
- C flat -> B
- F flat -> E
In this manner, the most natural enharmonic notes are chosen.
#(define (naturalize-pitch p) (let* ((o (ly:pitch-octave p)) (a (* 4 (ly:pitch-alteration p))) ; alteration, a, in quarter tone steps, ; for historical reasons (n (ly:pitch-notename p))) (cond ((and (> a 1) (or (eq? n 6) (eq? n 2))) (set! a (- a 2)) (set! n (+ n 1))) ((and (< a -1) (or (eq? n 0) (eq? n 3))) (set! a (+ a 2)) (set! n (- n 1)))) (cond ((> a 2) (set! a (- a 4)) (set! n (+ n 1))) ((< a -2) (set! a (+ a 4)) (set! n (- n 1)))) (if (< n 0) (begin (set! o (- o 1)) (set! n (+ n 7)))) (if (> n 6) (begin (set! o (+ o 1)) (set! n (- n 7)))) (ly:make-pitch o n (/ a 4)))) #(define (naturalize music) (let* ((es (ly:music-property music 'elements)) (e (ly:music-property music 'element)) (p (ly:music-property music 'pitch))) (if (pair? es) (ly:music-set-property! music 'elements (map (lambda (x) (naturalize x)) es))) (if (ly:music? e) (ly:music-set-property! music 'element (naturalize e))) (if (ly:pitch? p) (begin (set! p (naturalize-pitch p)) (ly:music-set-property! music 'pitch p))) music)) naturalizeMusic = #(define-music-function (parser location m) (ly:music?) (naturalize m)) music = \relative c' { c4 d e g } \score { \new Staff { \transpose c ais { \music } \naturalizeMusic \transpose c ais { \music } \transpose c deses { \music } \naturalizeMusic \transpose c deses { \music } } \layout { } }
See also
Notation Reference: Instrument transpositions.
Snippets: Pitches.
Internals Reference: TransposedMusic.
Known issues and warnings
The relative conversion will not affect \transpose
,
\chordmode
or \relative
sections in its argument.
To use relative mode within transposed music, an additional
\relative
must be placed inside \transpose
.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Transpose ] | [ Up : Pitches ] | [ Clef > ] |
1.1.3 Displaying pitches
This section discusses how to alter the output of pitches.
Clef | ||
Key signature | ||
Ottava brackets | ||
Instrument transpositions | ||
Automatic accidentals | ||
Ambitus |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Displaying pitches ] | [ Up : Displaying pitches ] | [ Key signature > ] |
Clef
The clef may be altered. Middle C is shown in every example.
\clef treble c2 c \clef alto c2 c \clef tenor c2 c \clef bass c2 c
Other clefs include:
\clef french c2 c \clef soprano c2 c \clef mezzosoprano c2 c \clef baritone c2 c \break \clef varbaritone c2 c \clef subbass c2 c \clef percussion c2 c \clef tab c2 c
Further supported clefs are described under Mensural clefs and Gregorian clefs.
By adding _8
or ^8
to the clef name, the
clef is transposed one octave down or up, respectively,
and _15
and ^15
transpose by two octaves.
The clef name must be enclosed in quotes when it contains
underscores or digits.
\clef treble c2 c \clef "treble_8" c2 c \clef "bass^15" c2 c
Selected Snippets
Tweaking clef properties
The command \clef "treble_8"
is equivalent to setting
clefGlyph
, clefPosition
(which controls the vertical
position of the clef), middleCPosition
and
clefOctavation
. A clef is printed when any of the properties
except middleCPosition
are changed.
Note that changing the glyph, the position of the clef, or the
octavation does not in itself change the position of subsequent notes
on the staff: the position of middle C must also be specified to do
this. The positional parameters are relative to the staff center line,
positive numbers displacing upwards, counting one for each line and
space. The clefOctavation
value would normally be set to 7, -7,
15 or -15, but other values are valid.
When a clef change takes place at a line break the new clef symbol is
printed at both the end of the previous line and the beginning of the
new line by default. If the warning clef at the end of the previous
line is not required it can be suppressed by setting the Staff
property explicitClefVisibility
to the value
end-of-line-invisible
. The default behavior can be recovered
with \unset Staff.explicitClefVisibility
.
The following examples show the possibilities when setting these properties manually. On the first line, the manual changes preserve the standard relative positioning of clefs and notes, whereas on the second line, they do not.
\layout { ragged-right = ##t } { % The default treble clef c'1 % The standard bass clef \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.F" \set Staff.clefPosition = #2 \set Staff.middleCPosition = #6 c'1 % The baritone clef \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.C" \set Staff.clefPosition = #4 \set Staff.middleCPosition = #4 c'1 % The standard choral tenor clef \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.G" \set Staff.clefPosition = #-2 \set Staff.clefOctavation = #-7 \set Staff.middleCPosition = #1 c'1 % A non-standard clef \set Staff.clefPosition = #0 \set Staff.clefOctavation = #0 \set Staff.middleCPosition = #-4 c'1 \break % The following clef changes do not preserve % the normal relationship between notes and clefs: \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.F" \set Staff.clefPosition = #2 c'1 \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.G" c'1 \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.C" c'1 \set Staff.clefOctavation = #7 c'1 \set Staff.clefOctavation = #0 \set Staff.clefPosition = #0 c'1 % Return to the normal clef: \set Staff.middleCPosition = #0 c'1 }
See also
Notation Reference: Mensural clefs, Gregorian clefs.
Snippets: Pitches.
Internals Reference: Clef_engraver, Clef, OctavateEight, clef-interface.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Clef ] | [ Up : Displaying pitches ] | [ Ottava brackets > ] |
Key signature
Note: New users are sometimes confused about accidentals and
key signatures. In LilyPond, note names are the raw input; key
signatures and clefs determine how this raw input is displayed.
An unaltered note like |
The key signature indicates the tonality in which a piece is played. It is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of the staff. The key signature may be altered:
\key pitch mode
Here, mode should be \major
or \minor
to get a
key signature of pitch-major or pitch-minor,
respectively. You may also use the standard mode names, also
called church modes: \ionian
, \dorian
,
\phrygian
, \lydian
, \mixolydian
,
\aeolian
, and \locrian
.
\key g \major fis1 f fis
Selected Snippets
Preventing natural signs from being printed when the key signature changes
When the key signature changes, natural signs are automatically printed
to cancel any accidentals from previous key signatures. This may be
prevented by setting to "false" the printKeyCancellation
property in the Staff
context.
\relative c' { \key d \major a4 b cis d \key g \minor a4 bes c d \set Staff.printKeyCancellation = ##f \key d \major a4 b cis d \key g \minor a4 bes c d }
Non-traditional key signatures
The commonly used \key
command sets the keySignature
property, in the Staff
context.
To create non-standard key signatures, set this property directly. The format of this command is a list:
\set Staff.keySignature = #`(((octave . step) . alter) ((octave
. step) . alter) ...)
where, for each element in the list,
octave
specifies the octave (0 being the octave from middle C to
the B above), step
specifies the note within the octave (0 means
C and 6 means B), and alter
is ,SHARP ,FLAT ,DOUBLE-SHARP
etc. (Note the leading comma.) The accidentals in the key signature
will appear in the reverse order to that in which they are specified.
Alternatively, for each item in the list, using the more concise format
(step . alter)
specifies that the same alteration should hold in
all octaves.
For microtonal scales where a "sharp" is not 100 cents, alter
refers to the alteration as a proportion of a 200-cent whole tone.
Here is an example of a possible key signature for generating a whole-tone scale:
\relative c' { \set Staff.keySignature = #`(((0 . 3) . ,SHARP) ((0 . 5) . ,FLAT) ((0 . 6) . ,FLAT)) c4 d e fis aes4 bes c2 }
See also
Music Glossary: church mode, scordatura.
Learning Manual: Accidentals and key signatures.
Snippets: Pitches.
Internals Reference: KeyChangeEvent, Key_engraver, Key_performer, KeyCancellation, KeySignature, key-cancellation-interface, key-signature-interface.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Key signature ] | [ Up : Displaying pitches ] | [ Instrument transpositions > ] |
Ottava brackets
Ottava brackets introduce an extra transposition of an octave for the staff:
a'2 b \ottava #1 a b \ottava #0 a b
The ottava
function also takes -1 (for 8va bassa),
2 (for 15ma), and -2 (for 15ma bassa) as arguments.
Selected Snippets
Ottava text
Internally, \ottava
sets the properties ottavation
(for example, to "8va"
or "8vb"
) and
middleCPosition
. To override the text of the bracket, set
ottavation
after invoking \ottava
.
{ \ottava #1 \set Staff.ottavation = #"8" c''1 \ottava #0 c'1 \ottava #1 \set Staff.ottavation = #"Text" c''1 }
See also
Music Glossary: octavation.
Snippets: Pitches.
Internals Reference: Ottava_spanner_engraver, OttavaBracket, ottava-bracket-interface.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Ottava brackets ] | [ Up : Displaying pitches ] | [ Automatic accidentals > ] |
Instrument transpositions
When typesetting scores that involve transposing instruments, some parts can be typeset in a different pitch than the concert pitch. In these cases, the key of the transposing instrument should be specified; otherwise the MIDI output and cues in other parts will produce incorrect pitches. For more information about quotations, see Quoting other voices.
\transposition pitch
The pitch to use for \transposition
should correspond to
the real sound heard when a c'
written on the staff is
played by the transposing instrument. This pitch is entered in
absolute mode, so an instrument that produces a real sound which
is one tone higher than the printed music should use
\transposition d'
. \transposition
should
only be used if the pitches are not being entered in
concert pitch.
Here are a few notes for violin and B-flat clarinet where the parts have been entered using the notes and key as they appear in each part of the conductor’s score. The two instruments are playing in unison.
\new GrandStaff << \new Staff = "violin" { \relative c'' { \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Vln" \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"violin" % not strictly necessary, but a good reminder \transposition c' \key c \major g4( c8) r c r c4 } } \new Staff = "clarinet" { \relative c'' { \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup { Cl (B\flat) } \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"clarinet" \transposition bes \key d \major a4( d8) r d r d4 } } >>
The \transposition
may be changed during a piece. For
example, a clarinetist may switch from an A clarinet to a B-flat
clarinet.
\set Staff.instrumentName = #"Cl (A)" \key a \major \transposition a c d e f \textLengthOn s1*0^\markup { Switch to B\flat clarinet } R1 \key bes \major \transposition bes c2 g
See also
Music Glossary: concert pitch, transposing instrument.
Notation Reference: Quoting other voices, Transpose.
Snippets: Pitches.
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[ < Instrument transpositions ] | [ Up : Displaying pitches ] | [ Ambitus > ] |
Automatic accidentals
There are many different conventions on how to typeset accidentals. LilyPond provides a function to specify which accidental style to use. This function is called as follows:
\new Staff << #(set-accidental-style 'voice) { … } >>
The accidental style applies to the current Staff
by
default (with the exception of the styles piano
and
piano-cautionary
, which are explained below). Optionally,
the function can take a second argument that determines in which
scope the style should be changed. For example, to use the same
style in all staves of the current StaffGroup
, use:
#(set-accidental-style 'voice 'StaffGroup)
The following accidental styles are supported. To demonstrate each style, we use the following example:
musicA = { << \relative c' { cis'8 fis, d'4 <a cis>8 f bis4 | cis2. <c, g'>4 | } \\ \relative c' { ais'2 cis, | fis8 b a4 cis2 | } >> } musicB = { \clef bass \new Voice { \voiceTwo \relative c' { <fis, a cis>4 \change Staff = up cis' \change Staff = down <fis, a> \change Staff = up dis' | \change Staff = down <fis, a cis>4 gis <f a d>2 | } } } \new PianoStaff { << \context Staff = "up" { #(set-accidental-style 'default) \musicA } \context Staff = "down" { #(set-accidental-style 'default) \musicB } >> }
Note that the last lines of this example can be replaced by the following, as long as the same accidental style should be used in both staves.
\new PianoStaff { << \context Staff = "up" { %%% change the next line as desired: #(set-accidental-style 'default 'Score) \musicA } \context Staff = "down" { \musicB } >> }
-
default
-
This is the default typesetting behavior. It corresponds to eighteenth-century common practice: accidentals are remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and only in their own octave. Thus, in the example below, no natural signs are printed before the
b
in the second measure or the lastc
: -
voice
-
The normal behavior is to remember the accidentals at
Staff
-level. In this style, however, accidentals are typeset individually for each voice. Apart from that, the rule is similar todefault
.As a result, accidentals from one voice do not get canceled in other voices, which is often an unwanted result: in the following example, it is hard to determine whether the second
a
should be played natural or sharp. Thevoice
option should therefore be used only if the voices are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be used by one musician (e.g., a conductor or in a piano score) thenmodern
ormodern-cautionary
should be used instead. -
modern
-
This rule corresponds to the common practice in the twentieth century. It prints the same accidentals as
default
, with two exceptions that serve to avoid ambiguity: after temporary accidentals, cancellation marks are printed also in the following measure (for notes in the same octave) and, in the same measure, for notes in other octaves. Hence the naturals before theb
and thec
in the second measure of the upper staff: -
modern-cautionary
-
This rule is similar to
modern
, but the ‘extra’ accidentals (the ones not typeset bydefault
) are typeset as cautionary accidentals. They are by default printed with parentheses, but they can also be printed in reduced size by defining thecautionary-style
property ofAccidentalSuggestion
. -
modern-voice
-
This rule is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are typeset for each voice, but they are canceled across voices in the same
Staff
. Hence, thea
in the last measure is canceled because the previous cancellation was in a different voice, and thed
in the lower staff is canceled because of the accidental in a different voice in the previous measure: -
modern-voice-cautionary
-
This rule is the same as
modern-voice
, but with the extra accidentals (the ones not typeset byvoice
) typeset as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset bydefault
are typeset with this rule, some of them are typeset as cautionaries. -
piano
-
This rule reflects twentieth-century practice for piano notation. Its behavior is very similar to
modern
style, but here accidentals also get canceled across the staves in the sameGrandStaff
orPianoStaff
, hence all the cancellations of the final notes.This accidental style applies to the current
GrandStaff
orPianoStaff
by default. -
piano-cautionary
-
This is the same as
piano
but with the extra accidentals typeset as cautionaries. -
neo-modern
-
This rule reproduces a common practice in contemporary music: accidentals are printed like with
modern
, but they are printed again if the same note appears later in the same measure – except if the note is immediately repeated. -
neo-modern-cautionary
-
This rule is similar to
neo-modern
, but the extra accidentals are printed as cautionary accidentals. -
dodecaphonic
-
This rule reflects a practice introduced by composers at the beginning of the 20th century, in an attempt to abolish the hierarchy between natural and non-natural notes. With this style, every note gets an accidental sign, including natural signs.
-
teaching
-
This rule is intended for students, and makes it easy to create scale sheets with automagically created cautionary accidentals. Accidentals are printed like with
modern
, but cautionary accidentals are added for all sharp or flat tones specified by the key signature, except if the note is immediately repeated. -
no-reset
-
This is the same as
default
but with accidentals lasting ‘forever’ and not only within the same measure: -
forget
-
This is the opposite of
no-reset
: Accidentals are not remembered at all – and hence all accidentals are typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what came before in the music. Unlikedodecaphonic
, this rule never prints any naturals.
Selected Snippets
Dodecaphonic-style accidentals for each note including naturals In early 20th century works, starting with Schoenberg, Berg and Webern (the "Second" Viennese school), every pitch in the twelve-tone scale has to be regarded as equal, without any hierarchy such as the classical (tonal) degrees. Therefore, these composers print one accidental for each note, even at natural pitches, to emphasize their new approach to music theory and language.
This snippet shows how to achieve such notation rules.
\score { \new Staff { #(set-accidental-style 'dodecaphonic) c'4 dis' cis' cis' c'4 dis' cis' cis' c'4 c' dis' des' } \layout { \context { \Staff \remove "Key_engraver" } } }
See also
Snippets: Pitches.
Internals Reference: Accidental, Accidental_engraver, GrandStaff and PianoStaff, Staff, AccidentalSuggestion, AccidentalPlacement, accidental-suggestion-interface.
Known issues and warnings
Simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in sequential
mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are typeset as
if the notes in the chord happen one at a time, in the order in
which they appear in the input file. This is a problem when
accidentals in a chord depend on each other, which does not happen
for the default accidental style. The problem can be solved by
manually inserting !
and ?
for the
problematic notes.
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[ < Automatic accidentals ] | [ Up : Displaying pitches ] | [ Note heads > ] |
Ambitus
The term ambitus (pl. ambitus) denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in a part of music. It may also denote the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing. Ambitus are printed on vocal parts so that performers can easily determine if it matches their capabilities.
Ambitus are denoted at the beginning of a piece near the initial clef. The range is graphically specified by two note heads that represent the lowest and highest pitches. Accidentals are only printed if they are not part of the key signature.
\layout { \context { \Voice \consists "Ambitus_engraver" } } \relative c'' { aes c e2 cis,1 }
Selected Snippets
Adding ambitus per voice
Ambitus can be added per voice. In this case, the ambitus must be moved manually to prevent collisions.
\new Staff << \new Voice \with { \consists "Ambitus_engraver" } \relative c'' { \override Ambitus #'X-offset = #2.0 \voiceOne c4 a d e f1 } \new Voice \with { \consists "Ambitus_engraver" } \relative c' { \voiceTwo es4 f g as b1 } >>
Ambitus with multiple voices
Adding the Ambitus_engraver
to the Staff
context creates
a single ambitus per staff, even in the case of staves with multiple
voices.
\new Staff \with { \consists "Ambitus_engraver" } << \new Voice \relative c'' { \voiceOne c4 a d e f1 } \new Voice \relative c' { \voiceTwo es4 f g as b1 } >>
See also
Music Glossary: ambitus.
Snippets: Pitches.
Internals Reference: Ambitus_engraver, Voice, Staff, Ambitus, AmbitusAccidental, AmbitusLine, AmbitusNoteHead, ambitus-interface.
Known issues and warnings
There is no collision handling in the case of multiple per-voice ambitus.
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[ < Ambitus ] | [ Up : Pitches ] | [ Special note heads > ] |
1.1.4 Note heads
This section suggests ways of altering note heads.
Special note heads | ||
Easy notation note heads | ||
Shape note heads | ||
Improvisation |
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[ < Note heads ] | [ Up : Note heads ] | [ Easy notation note heads > ] |
Special note heads
Note heads may be altered:
c4 b a b \override NoteHead #'style = #'cross c4 b a b \revert NoteHead #'style c4 d e f
There is a shorthand for diamond shapes which can only be used inside chords:
<c f\harmonic>2 <d a'\harmonic>4 <c g'\harmonic>
To see all note head styles, see Note head styles.
See also
Snippets: Pitches.
Notation Reference: Note head styles, Chorded notes.
Internals Reference: note-event, Note_heads_engraver, Ledger_line_engraver, NoteHead, LedgerLineSpanner, note-head-interface, ledger-line-spanner-interface.
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[ < Special note heads ] | [ Up : Note heads ] | [ Shape note heads > ] |
Easy notation note heads
The ‘easy play’ note head includes a note name inside the head. It is used in music for beginners. To make the letters readable, it should be printed in a large font size. To print with a larger font, see Setting the staff size.
#(set-global-staff-size 26) \relative c' { \easyHeadsOn c2 e4 f g1 \easyHeadsOff c,1 }
Predefined commands
\easyHeadsOn
,
\easyHeadsOff
.
See also
Notation Reference: Setting the staff size.
Snippets: Pitches.
Internals Reference: note-event, Note_heads_engraver, NoteHead, note-head-interface.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Easy notation note heads ] | [ Up : Note heads ] | [ Improvisation > ] |
Shape note heads
In shape note head notation, the shape of the note head corresponds to the harmonic function of a note in the scale. This notation was popular in nineteenth-century American song books. Shape note heads can be produced:
\aikenHeads c, d e f g a b c \sacredHarpHeads c, d e f g a b c
Shapes are typeset according to the step in the scale, where the
base of the scale is determined by the \key
command.
Predefined commands
\aikenHeads
,
\sacredHarpHeads
.
Selected Snippets
Applying note head styles depending on the step of the scale
The shapeNoteStyles
property can be used to define various note
head styles for each step of the scale (as set by the key signature or
the "tonic" property). This property requires a set of symbols, which
can be purely arbitrary (geometrical expressions such as
triangle
, cross
, and xcircle
are allowed) or based
on old American engraving tradition (some latin note names are also
allowed).
That said, to imitate old American song books, there are several
predefined note head styles available through shortcut commands such as
\aikenHeads
or \sacredHarpHeads
.
This example shows different ways to obtain shape note heads, and demonstrates the ability to transpose a melody without losing the correspondence between harmonic functions and note head styles.
fragment = { \key c \major c2 d e2 f g2 a b2 c } \score { \new Staff { \transpose c d \relative c' { \set shapeNoteStyles = #'#(do re mi fa #f la ti) \fragment } \break \relative c' { \set shapeNoteStyles = #'#(cross triangle fa #f mensural xcircle diamond) \fragment } } \layout { ragged-right = ##t } }
To see all note head styles, see Note head styles.
See also
Snippets: Pitches.
Notation Reference: Note head styles.
Internals Reference: note-event, Note_heads_engraver, NoteHead, note-head-interface.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Shape note heads ] | [ Up : Note heads ] | [ Rhythms > ] |
Improvisation
Improvisation is sometimes denoted with slashed note heads, where the performer may choose any pitch but should play the specified rhythm. Such note heads can be created:
\new Voice \with { \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver" } { e8 e g a a16( bes) a8 g \improvisationOn e8 ~ e2 ~ e8 f4 f8 ~ f2 \improvisationOff a16( bes) a8 g e }
Predefined commands
\improvisationOn
,
\improvisationOff
.
See also
Snippets: Pitches.
Internals Reference: Pitch_squash_engraver, Voice, RhythmicStaff.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Improvisation ] | [ Up : Musical notation ] | [ Writing rhythms > ] |
1.2 Rhythms
This section discusses rhythms, rests, durations, beaming and bars.
1.2.1 Writing rhythms | ||
1.2.2 Writing rests | ||
1.2.3 Displaying rhythms | ||
1.2.4 Beams | ||
1.2.5 Bars | ||
1.2.6 Special rhythmic concerns |
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[ < Rhythms ] | [ Up : Rhythms ] | [ Durations > ] |
1.2.1 Writing rhythms
Durations | ||
Tuplets | ||
Scaling durations | ||
Ties |
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[ < Writing rhythms ] | [ Up : Writing rhythms ] | [ Tuplets > ] |
Durations
Durations are designated by numbers and dots. Durations are entered
as their reciprocal values. For example, a quarter note is entered
using a 4
(since it is a 1/4 note), and a half note is entered
using a 2
(since it is a 1/2 note). For notes longer than a
whole you must use the \longa
(a double breve) and
\breve
commands. Durations as short as 128th notes may be
specified. Shorter values are possible, but only as beamed notes.
\time 8/1 c\longa c\breve c1 c2 c4 c8 c16 c32 c64 c64
Here are the same durations with automatic beaming turned off.
\time 8/1 \autoBeamOff c\longa c\breve c1 c2 c4 c8 c16 c32 c64 c64
A note with the duration of a quadruple breve may be entered with
\maxima
, but this is supported only within ancient music
notation. For details, see Ancient notation.
If the duration is omitted, it is set to the previously entered duration. The default for the first note is a quarter note.
a a a2 a a4 a a1 a
To obtain dotted note lengths, place a dot (.
) after the
duration. Double-dotted notes are specified by appending two
dots, and so on.
a4 b c4. b8 a4. b4.. c8.
Some durations cannot be represented with just binary durations and dots; they can be represented only by tying two or more notes together. For details, see Ties.
For ways of specifying durations for the syllables of lyrics and ways of aligning lyrics to notes, see Vocal music.
Optionally, notes can be spaced strictly proportionately to their duration. For details of this and other settings which control proportional notation, see Proportional notation.
Dots are normally moved up to avoid staff lines, except in polyphonic situations. Predefined commands are available to force a particular direction manually, for details see Direction and placement.
Predefined commands
\autoBeamOff
,
\dotsUp
,
\dotsDown
,
\dotsNeutral
.
See also
Music Glossary: breve, longa, maxima, note value, Duration names notes and rests.
Notation Reference: Automatic beams, Ties, Writing rhythms, Writing rests, Vocal music, Ancient notation, Proportional notation.
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: Dots, DotColumn.
Known issues and warnings
There is no fundamental limit to rest durations (both in terms of longest and shortest), but the number of glyphs is limited: rests from 128th to maxima (8 x whole) may be printed.
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[ < Durations ] | [ Up : Writing rhythms ] | [ Scaling durations > ] |
Tuplets
Tuplets are made from a music expression by multiplying all the durations with a fraction:
\times fraction { music }
The duration of music will be multiplied by the fraction. The fraction’s denominator will be printed over or under the notes, optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in which 3 notes have the duration of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of their written length.
a2 \times 2/3 { b4 b b } c4 c \times 2/3 { b4 a g }
The automatic placement of the tuplet bracket above or below the notes may be overridden manually with predefined commands, for details see Direction and placement.
Tuplets may be nested:
\autoBeamOff c4 \times 4/5 { f8 e f \times 2/3 { e[ f g] } } f4 |
Modifying nested tuplets which begin at the same musical moment
must be done with \tweak
.
To modify the duration of notes without printing a tuplet bracket, see Scaling durations.
Predefined commands
\tupletUp
,
\tupletDown
,
\tupletNeutral
.
Selected Snippets
Entering several tuplets using only one \times command
The property tupletSpannerDuration
sets how long each of the
tuplets contained within the brackets after \times
should last.
Many consecutive tuplets can then be placed within a single
\times
expression, thus saving typing.
In the example, two triplets are shown, while \times
was
entered only once.
For more information about make-moment
, see "Time
administration".
\relative c' { \time 2/4 \set tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4) \times 2/3 { c8 c c c c c } }
Changing the tuplet number
By default, only the numerator of the tuplet number is printed over the
tuplet bracket, i.e., the denominator of the argument to the
\times
command. Alternatively, num:den of the tuplet number may
be printed, or the tuplet number may be suppressed altogether.
\relative c'' { \times 2/3 { c8 c c } \times 2/3 { c8 c c } \override TupletNumber #'text = #tuplet-number::calc-fraction-text \times 2/3 { c8 c c } \override TupletNumber #'stencil = ##f \times 2/3 { c8 c c } }
Permitting line breaks within beamed tuplets
This artificial example shows how both manual and automatic line breaks may be permitted to within a beamed tuplet. Note that such off-beat tuplets have to be beamed manually.
\layout { \context { \Voice % Permit line breaks within tuplets \remove "Forbid_line_break_engraver" % Allow beams to be broken at line breaks \override Beam #'breakable = ##t } } \relative c'' { a8 \repeat unfold 5 { \times 2/3 { c[ b a] } } % Insert a manual line break within a tuplet \times 2/3 { c[ b \bar "" \break a] } \repeat unfold 5 { \times 2/3 { c[ b a] } } c8 }
See also
Music Glossary: triplet, tuplet, polymetric.
Learning Manual: Tweaking methods.
Notation Reference:
Time administration,
Scaling durations,
The \tweak
command,
Polymetric notation.
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: TupletBracket, TupletNumber, TimeScaledMusic.
Known issues and warnings
When the first note on a staff is a grace note followed by a
tuplet the grace note must be placed before the \times
command to avoid errors. Anywhere else, grace notes may be
placed within tuplet brackets.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Tuplets ] | [ Up : Writing rhythms ] | [ Ties > ] |
Scaling durations
You can alter the duration of single notes, rests or chords by a
fraction N/M
by appending *N/M
(or *N
if M
is 1) to the duration. This will not affect the appearance of the
notes or rests produced, but the altered duration will be used in
calculating the position within the measure and setting the duration
in the MIDI output. Multiplying factors may be combined such as
*L*M/N
.
In the following example, the first three notes take up exactly two beats, but no triplet bracket is printed.
\time 2/4 % Alter durations to triplets a4*2/3 gis4*2/3 a4*2/3 % Normal durations a4 a4 % Double the duration of chord <a d>4*2 % Duration of quarter, appears like sixteenth b16*4 c4
The duration of skip or spacing notes may also be modified by
a multiplier. This is useful for skipping many measures, e.g.,
s1*23
.
Longer stretches of music may be compressed by a fraction in the same way, as if every note, chord or rest had the fraction as a multiplier. This leaves the appearance of the music unchanged but the internal duration of the notes will be multiplied by the fraction num/den. The spaces around the dot are required. Here is an example showing how music can be compressed and expanded:
\time 2/4 % Normal durations <c a>4 c8 a % Scale music by *2/3 \scaleDurations #'(2 . 3) { <c a f>4. c8 a f } % Scale music by *2 \scaleDurations #'(2 . 1) { <c' a>4 c8 b }
One application of this command is in polymetric notation, see Polymetric notation.
See also
Notation Reference: Tuplets, Invisible rests, Polymetric notation.
Snippets: Rhythms.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Scaling durations ] | [ Up : Writing rhythms ] | [ Writing rests > ] |
Ties
A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in effect extends the duration of a note.
Note: Ties should not be confused with slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate musical phrasing. A tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar to the augmentation dot. |
A tie is entered using the tilde symbol ~
a2 ~ a
Ties are used either when the note crosses a bar line, or when dots cannot be used to denote the rhythm. Ties should also be used when note values cross larger subdivisions of the measure:
\relative c' { r8 c8 ~ c2 r4 | r8^"not" c2 ~ c8 r4 }
If you need to tie many notes across bar lines, it may be easier to use automatic note splitting, see Automatic note splitting. This mechanism automatically splits long notes, and ties them across bar lines.
When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match are connected. When no note heads match, no ties will be created. Chords may be partially tied by placing the tie inside the chord.
<c e g> ~ <c e g> <c~ e g~ b> <c e g b>
When a second alternative of a repeat starts with a tied note, you have to specify the repeated tie as follows:
\repeat volta 2 { c g <c e>2 ~ } \alternative { % First alternative: following note is tied normally { <c e>2. r4 } % Second alternative: following note has a repeated tie { <c e>2\repeatTie d4 c } }
L.v. ties (laissez vibrer) indicate that notes must not be damped at the end. It is used in notation for piano, harp and other string and percussion instruments. They can be entered as follows:
<c f g>1\laissezVibrer
The vertical placement of ties may be controlled, see Predefined commands, or for details, see Direction and placement.
Solid, dotted or dashed ties may be specified, see Predefined commands.
Predefined commands
\tieUp
,
\tieDown
,
\tieNeutral
,
\tieDotted
,
\tieDashed
,
\tieSolid
.
Selected Snippets
Using ties with arpeggios
Ties are sometimes used to write out arpeggios. In this case, two tied
notes need not be consecutive. This can be achieved by setting the
tieWaitForNote
property to #t
. The same feature is also
useful, for example, to tie a tremolo to a chord, but in principle, it
can also be used for ordinary consecutive notes.
\relative c' { \set tieWaitForNote = ##t \grace { c16[ ~ e ~ g] ~ } <c, e g>2 \repeat tremolo 8 { c32 ~ c' ~ } <c c,>1 e8 ~ c ~ a ~ f ~ <e' c a f>2 \tieUp c8 ~ a \tieDown \tieDotted g8 ~ c g2 }
Engraving ties manually
Ties may be engraved manually by changing the tie-configuration
property of the TieColumn
object. The first number indicates the
distance from the center of the staff in staff-spaces, and the second
number indicates the direction (1 = up, -1 = down).
\relative c' { <c e g>2 ~ <c e g> \override TieColumn #'tie-configuration = #'((0.0 . 1) (-2.0 . 1) (-4.0 . 1)) <c e g> ~ <c e g> }
See also
Music Glossary: tie, laissez vibrer.
Notation Reference: Automatic note splitting.
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: LaissezVibrerTie, LaissezVibrerTieColumn, TieColumn, Tie.
Known issues and warnings
Switching staves when a tie is active will not produce a slanted tie.
Changing clefs or octavations during a tie is not really well-defined. In these cases, a slur may be preferable.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Ties ] | [ Up : Rhythms ] | [ Rests > ] |
1.2.2 Writing rests
Rests are entered as part of the music in music expressions.
Rests | ||
Invisible rests | ||
Full measure rests |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Writing rests ] | [ Up : Writing rests ] | [ Invisible rests > ] |
Rests
Rests are entered like notes with the note name r
.
Durations longer than a whole rest use the predefined
commands shown:
\new Staff { % These two lines are just to prettify this example \time 16/1 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f % Print a maxima rest, equal to four breves r\maxima % Print a longa rest, equal to two breves r\longa % Print a breve rest r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r128 }
Whole measure rests, centered in the middle of the measure, must be entered as multi-measure rests. They can be used for a single measure as well as many measures and are discussed in Full measure rests.
To explicitly specify a rest’s vertical position, write a note
followed by \rest
. A rest of the duration of the note will
be placed at the staff position where the note would appear. This
allows for precise manual formatting of polyphonic music, since the
automatic rest collision formatter will not move these rests.
a4\rest d4\rest
Selected Snippets
Rest styles
Rests may be used in various styles.
\layout { indent = 0.0 \context { \Staff \remove "Time_signature_engraver" } } \new Staff \relative c { \cadenzaOn \override Staff.Rest #'style = #'mensural r\maxima^\markup \typewriter { mensural } r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 s32 s64 s128 s128 \bar "" \override Staff.Rest #'style = #'neomensural r\maxima^\markup \typewriter { neomensural } r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 s32 s64 s128 s128 \bar "" \override Staff.Rest #'style = #'classical r\maxima^\markup \typewriter { classical } r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r128 s128 \bar "" \override Staff.Rest #'style = #'default r\maxima^\markup \typewriter { default } r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r128 s128 }
See also
Music Glossary: breve, longa, maxima.
Notation Reference: Full measure rests.
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: Rest.
Known issues and warnings
There is no fundamental limit to rest durations (both in terms of longest and shortest), but the number of glyphs is limited: there are rests from 128th to maxima (8 x whole).
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Rests ] | [ Up : Writing rests ] | [ Full measure rests > ] |
Invisible rests
An invisible rest (also called a ‘spacer rest’) can be entered
like a note with the note name s
:
c4 c s c s2 c
Spacer rests are available only in note mode and chord mode. In
other situations, for example, when entering lyrics, \skip
is used to skip a musical moment. \skip
requires an
explicit duration.
<< { a2 \skip2 a2 a2 } \new Lyrics { \lyricmode { foo2 \skip 1 bla2 } } >>
A spacer rest implicitly causes Staff
and Voice
contexts to be created if none exist, just like notes and rests
do:
s1 s s
\skip
simply skips musical time; it creates no output of
any kind.
% This is valid input, but does nothing \skip 1 \skip1 \skip 1
See also
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: SkipMusic
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Invisible rests ] | [ Up : Writing rests ] | [ Displaying rhythms > ] |
Full measure rests
Rests for one or more full measures are entered like notes with
the note name uppercase R
:
% Rest measures contracted to single measure \compressFullBarRests R1*4 R1*24 R1*4 b2^"Tutti" b4 a4
The duration of full-measure rests is identical to the duration notation used for notes. The duration in a multi-measure rest must always be an integral number of measure-lengths, so augmentation dots or fractions must often be used:
\compressFullBarRests \time 2/4 R1 | R2 | \time 3/4 R2. | R2.*2 | \time 13/8 R1*13/8 | R1*13/8*12 | \time 10/8 R4*5*4 |
A full-measure rest is printed as either a whole or breve rest, centered in the measure, depending on the time signature.
\time 4/4 R1 | \time 6/4 R1*3/2 | \time 8/4 R1*2 |
By default a multi-measure rest is expanded in the printed score to show all the rest measures explicitly. Alternatively, a multi-measure rest can be shown as a single measure containing a multi-measure rest symbol, with the number of measures of rest printed above the measure:
% Default behavior \time 3/4 r2. | R2.*2 | \time 2/4 R2 | \time 4/4 % Rest measures contracted to single measure \compressFullBarRests r1 | R1*17 | R1*4 | % Rest measures expanded \expandFullBarRests \time 3/4 R2.*2 |
Markups can be added to multi-measure rests.
The predefined command \fermataMarkup
is provided for adding fermatas.
\compressFullBarRests \time 3/4 R2.*10^\markup { \italic "ad lib." } R2.^\fermataMarkup
Note: Markups attached to a multi-measure rest are
objects of type |
% This fails, as the wrong object name is specified \override TextScript #'padding = #5 R1^"wrong" % This is correct and works \override MultiMeasureRestText #'padding = #5 R1^"right"
When a multi-measure rest immediately follows a \partial
setting, resulting bar-check warnings may not be displayed.
Predefined commands
\textLengthOn
,
\textLengthOff
,
\fermataMarkup
,
\compressFullBarRests
,
\expandFullBarRests
.
Selected Snippets
Changing form of multi-measure rests
If there are ten or fewer measures of rests, a series of longa
and breve rests (called in German "Kirchenpausen" - church rests)
is printed within the staff; otherwise a simple line is shown.
This default number of ten may be changed by overriding the
expand-limit
property:
\relative c'' { \compressFullBarRests R1*2 | R1*5 | R1*9 \override MultiMeasureRest #'expand-limit = #3 R1*2 | R1*5 | R1*9 }
Positioning multi-measure rests
Unlike ordinary rests, there is no predefined command to change the staff position of a multi-measure rest symbol of either form by attaching it to a note. However, in polyphonic music multi-measure rests in odd-numbered and even-numbered voices are vertically separated. The positioning of multi-measure rests can be controlled as follows:
\relative c'' { % Multi-measure rests by default are set under the second line R1 % They can be moved with an override \override MultiMeasureRest #'staff-position = #-2 R1 % A value of 0 is the default position; % the following trick moves the rest to the center line \override MultiMeasureRest #'staff-position = #-0.01 R1 % Multi-measure rests in odd-numbered voices are under the top line << { R1 } \\ { a1 } >> % Multi-measure rests in even-numbered voices are under the bottom line << { c1 } \\ { R1 } >> % They remain separated even in empty measures << { R1 } \\ { R1 } >> % This brings them together even though there are two voices \compressFullBarRests << \revert MultiMeasureRest #'staff-position { R1*3 } \\ \revert MultiMeasureRest #'staff-position { R1*3 } >> }
Multi-measure rest markup Markups attached to a multi-measure rest will be centered above or below it. Long markups attached to multi-measure rests do not cause the measure to expand. To expand a multi-measure rest to fit the markup, use a spacer rest with an attached markup before the multi-measure rest.
Note that the spacer rest causes a bar line to be inserted. Text attached to a spacer rest in this way is left-aligned to the position where the note would be placed in the measure, but if the measure length is determined by the length of the text, the text will appear to be centered.
\relative c' { \compressFullBarRests \textLengthOn s1*0^\markup { [MAJOR GENERAL] } R1*19 s1*0_\markup { \italic { Cue: ... it is yours } } s1*0^\markup { A } R1*30^\markup { [MABEL] } \textLengthOff c4^\markup { CHORUS } d f c }
See also
Music Glossary: multi-measure rest.
Notation Reference: Durations, Text, Formatting text, Text scripts.
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: MultiMeasureRest, MultiMeasureRestNumber, MultiMeasureRestText.
Known issues and warnings
If an attempt is made to use fingerings (e.g.,
R1*10-4
) to put numbers over multi-measure rests, the
fingering numeral (4) may collide with the bar counter
numeral (10).
There is no way to automatically condense multiple ordinary rests into a single multi-measure rest.
Multi-measure rests do not take part in rest collisions.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Full measure rests ] | [ Up : Rhythms ] | [ Time signature > ] |
1.2.3 Displaying rhythms
Time signature | ||
Upbeats | ||
Unmetered music | ||
Polymetric notation | ||
Automatic note splitting | ||
Showing melody rhythms |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Displaying rhythms ] | [ Up : Displaying rhythms ] | [ Upbeats > ] |
Time signature
The time signature is set as follows:
\time 2/4 c2 \time 3/4 c2.
Time signatures are printed at the beginning of a piece and whenever the time signature changes. If a change takes place at the end of a line a warning time signature sign is printed there. This default behavior may be changed, see Visibility of objects.
\time 2/4 c2 c \break c c \break \time 4/4 c c c c
The time signature symbol that is used in 2/2 and 4/4 time can be changed to a numeric style:
% Default style \time 4/4 c1 \time 2/2 c1 % Change to numeric style \numericTimeSignature \time 4/4 c1 \time 2/2 c1 % Revert to default style \defaultTimeSignature \time 4/4 c1 \time 2/2 c1
Mensural time signatures are covered in Mensural time signatures.
Predefined commands
\numericTimeSignature
,
\defaultTimeSignature
.
Selected Snippets
Changing the time signature without affecting the beaming
The \time
command sets the properties
timeSignatureFraction
, beatLength
, beatGrouping
and measureLength
in the Timing
context, which is
normally aliased to Score
. Changing the value of
timeSignatureFraction
causes the new time signature symbol to be
printed without changing any of the other properties:
\relative c'' { \time 3/4 a16 a a a a a a a a a a a % Change time signature symbol but keep 3/4 beaming % due to unchanged underlying time signature \set Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(12 . 16) a16 a a a a a a a a a a a \time 12/16 % Lose 3/4 beaming now \time has been changed a16 a a a a a a a a a a a }
Compound time signatures
Odd 20th century time signatures (such as "5/8") can often be played as compound time signatures (e.g. "3/8 + 2/8"), which combine two or more inequal metrics. LilyPond can make such music quite easy to read and play, by explicitly printing the compound time signatures and adapting the automatic beaming behavior. (Graphic measure grouping indications can also be added; see the appropriate snippet in this database.)
#(define ((compound-time one two num) grob) (grob-interpret-markup grob (markup #:override '(baseline-skip . 0) #:number (#:line ( (#:column (one num)) #:vcenter "+" (#:column (two num)))) ))) \relative c' { \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil = #(compound-time "2" "3" "8") \time 5/8 #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 5 8) 1 4) c8 d e fis gis c8 fis, gis e d c8 d e4 gis8 }
See also
Music Glossary: time signature
Notation Reference: Mensural time signatures, Time administration.
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: TimeSignature, Timing_translator.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Time signature ] | [ Up : Displaying rhythms ] | [ Unmetered music > ] |
Upbeats
Partial or pick-up measures, such as an anacrusis or upbeat, are
entered using the \partial
command, with the syntax
\partial duration
where duration
is the rhythmic length of the interval
before the start of the first complete measure:
\partial 4 e4 | a2. c,4 |
The partial measure can be any duration less than a full measure:
\partial 8*3 c8 d e | a2. c,4 |
Internally, this is translated into
\set Timing.measurePosition = -duration
The property measurePosition
contains a rational number
indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point. Note
that this is set to a negative number by the \partial
command: i.e., \partial 4
is internally translated to
-4
, meaning “there is a quarter note left in the measure.”
See also
Music Glossary: anacrusis.
Notation Reference: Grace notes.
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internal Reference: Timing_translator.
Known issues and warnings
The \partial
command is intended to be used only at the
beginning of a piece. If you use it after the beginning, some
odd warnings may occur.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Upbeats ] | [ Up : Displaying rhythms ] | [ Polymetric notation > ] |
Unmetered music
Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For
unmetered music (some cadenzas, for example), this is not desirable.
To turn off automatic calculation of bar lines and bar numbers,
use the command \cadenzaOn
, and use \cadenzaOff
to turn them on again.
c4 d e d \cadenzaOn c4 c d8 d d f4 g4. \cadenzaOff \bar "|" d4 e d c
Bar numbering is resumed at the end of the cadenza as if the cadenza were not there:
% Show all bar numbers \override Score.BarNumber #'break-visibility = #all-visible c4 d e d \cadenzaOn c4 c d8 d d f4 g4. \cadenzaOff \bar "|" d4 e d c
Predefined commands
\cadenzaOn
,
\cadenzaOff
.
See also
Music Glossary: cadenza.
Notation Reference:
Snippets: Rhythms.
Known issues and warnings
LilyPond will insert line breaks and page breaks only at a bar line. Unless the unmetered music ends before the end of the staff line, you will need to insert invisible bar lines with
\bar ""
to indicate where breaks can occur.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Unmetered music ] | [ Up : Displaying rhythms ] | [ Automatic note splitting > ] |
Polymetric notation
Polymetric notation is supported, either explicitly or by modifying the visible time signature symbol and scaling the note durations.
Staves with different time signatures, equal measure lengths
This notation can be created by setting a common time signature
for each staff but replacing the symbol manually by setting
timeSignatureFraction
to the desired fraction and scaling
the printed durations in each staff to the common time
signature; see Time signature. The scaling is done with
\scaleDurations
, which is used in a similar way to
\times
, but does not create a tuplet bracket; see
Scaling durations.
In this example, music with the time signatures of 3/4, 9/8, and 10/8 are used in parallel. In the second staff, shown durations are multiplied by 2/3, as 2/3 * 9/8 = 3/4, and in the third staff, shown durations are multiplied by 3/5, as 3/5 * 10/8 = 3/4. It will often be necessary to insert beams manually, as the duration scaling affects the autobeaming rules.
\relative c' << \new Staff { \time 3/4 c4 c c | c c c | } \new Staff { \time 3/4 \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = #'(9 . 8) \scaleDurations #'(2 . 3) \repeat unfold 6 { c8[ c c] } } \new Staff { \time 3/4 \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = #'(10 . 8) \scaleDurations #'(3 . 5) { \repeat unfold 2 { c8[ c c] } \repeat unfold 2 { c8[ c] } | c4. c4. \times 2/3 { c8[ c c] } c4 } } >>
Staves with different time signatures, unequal bar lengths
Each staff can be given its own independent time signature by
moving the Timing_translator
and the
Default_bar_line_engraver
to the Staff
context.
\layout { \context { \Score \remove "Timing_translator" \remove "Default_bar_line_engraver" } \context { \Staff \consists "Timing_translator" \consists "Default_bar_line_engraver" } } % Now each staff has its own time signature. \relative c' << \new Staff { \time 3/4 c4 c c | c c c | } \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 c | c c | c c | } \new Staff { \time 3/8 c4. | c8 c c | c4. | c8 c c | } >>
Selected Snippets
Compound time signatures
Odd 20th century time signatures (such as "5/8") can often be played as compound time signatures (e.g. "3/8 + 2/8"), which combine two or more inequal metrics. LilyPond can make such music quite easy to read and play, by explicitly printing the compound time signatures and adapting the automatic beaming behavior. (Graphic measure grouping indications can also be added; see the appropriate snippet in this database.)
#(define ((compound-time one two num) grob) (grob-interpret-markup grob (markup #:override '(baseline-skip . 0) #:number (#:line ( (#:column (one num)) #:vcenter "+" (#:column (two num)))) ))) \relative c' { \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil = #(compound-time "2" "3" "8") \time 5/8 #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 5 8) 1 4) c8 d e fis gis c8 fis, gis e d c8 d e4 gis8 }
See also
Music Glossary: polymetric, polymetric time signature, meter.
Notation Reference: Time signature, Scaling durations.
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: TimeSignature, Timing_translator, Default_bar_line_engraver, Staff.
Known issues and warnings
When using different time signatures in parallel, notes at the same moment will be be placed at the same horizontal location. However, the bar lines in the different staves will cause the note spacing to be less regular in each of the individual staves than would be normal without the different time signatures.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Polymetric notation ] | [ Up : Displaying rhythms ] | [ Showing melody rhythms > ] |
Automatic note splitting
Long notes which overrun bar lines can be converted automatically
to tied notes. This is done by replacing the
Note_heads_engraver
with the
Completion_heads_engraver
. In the following
example, notes crossing the bar lines are split and tied.
\new Voice \with { \remove "Note_heads_engraver" \consists "Completion_heads_engraver" } { c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2 }
This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are not entirely filled, then the ties show exactly how much each measure is off.
See also
Music Glossary: tie
Learning Manual: Engravers explained, Adding and removing engravers.
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: Note_heads_engraver, Completion_heads_engraver, Forbid_line_break_engraver.
Known issues and warnings
Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
represented exactly with normal notes and dots, but the
Completion_heads_engraver
will not insert tuplets.
The Completion_heads_engraver
only affects notes; it does not
split rests.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Automatic note splitting ] | [ Up : Displaying rhythms ] | [ Beams > ] |
Showing melody rhythms
Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line
<< \new RhythmicStaff { \new Voice = "myRhythm" { \time 4/4 c4 e8 f g2 r4 g g f g1 } } \new Lyrics { \lyricsto "myRhythm" { This is my song I like to sing } } >>
Guitar chord charts often show the strumming rhythms. This can
be done with the Pitch_squash_engraver
and
\improvisationOn
.
<< \new ChordNames { \chordmode { c1 f g c } } \new Voice \with { \consists Pitch_squash_engraver } \relative c'' { \improvisationOn c4 c8 c c4 c8 c f4 f8 f f4 f8 f g4 g8 g g4 g8 g c4 c8 c c4 c8 c } >>
Predefined commands
\improvisationOn
,
\improvisationOff
.
Selected Snippets
Guitar strum rhythms
For guitar music, it is possible to show strum rhythms, along with melody notes, chord names, and fret diagrams.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly" << \new ChordNames { \chordmode { c1 f g c } } \new FretBoards { \chordmode { c1 f g c } } \new Voice \with { \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver" } { \relative c'' { \improvisationOn c4 c8 c c4 c8 c f4 f8 f f4 f8 f g4 g8 g g4 g8 g c4 c8 c c4 c8 c } } \new Voice = "melody" { \relative c'' { c2 e4 e4 f2. r4 g2. a4 e4 c2. } } \new Lyrics { \lyricsto "melody" { This is my song. I like to sing. } } >>
See also
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: RhythmicStaff, Pitch_squash_engraver.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Showing melody rhythms ] | [ Up : Rhythms ] | [ Automatic beams > ] |
1.2.4 Beams
Automatic beams | ||
Setting automatic beam behavior | ||
Manual beams | ||
Feathered beams |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Beams ] | [ Up : Beams ] | [ Setting automatic beam behavior > ] |
Automatic beams
By default, beams are inserted automatically:
\time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
If these automatic decisions are not satisfactory, beaming can be
entered explicitly; see Manual beams. It is also possible
to define beaming patterns that differ from the defaults. The
default beaming rules for most common time signatures are defined
in ‘scm/auto-beam.scm’. If there are no beaming rules
defined for a particular beam’s duration in the time signature being
used, its beaming is controlled by the values of three context
properties, measureLength
, beatLength
and
beatGrouping
. Both the beaming rules and the context
properties can be overridden, see Setting automatic beam behavior.
Note: If beams are used to indicate melismata in songs, then automatic
beaming should be switched off with |
Automatic beaming may be turned off and on with
\autoBeamOff
and \autoBeamOn
commands:
c4 c8 c8. c16 c8. c16 c8 \autoBeamOff c4 c8 c8. c16 c8. \autoBeamOn c16 c8
Predefined commands
\autoBeamOff
,
\autoBeamOn
.
Selected Snippets
Beams across line breaks
Line breaks are normally forbidden when beams cross bar lines. This behavior can be changed as shown:
\relative c'' { \override Beam #'breakable = ##t c8 c[ c] c[ c] c[ c] c[ \break c8] c[ c] c[ c] c[ c] c }
Changing beam knee gap
Kneed beams are inserted automatically when a large gap is detected
between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the
auto-knee-gap
property. A kneed beam is drawn if the gap is
larger than the value of auto-knee-gap
plus the width of the
beam object (which depends on the duration of the notes and the slope
of the beam). By default auto-knee-gap
is set to 5.5 staff
spaces.
{ f8 f''8 f8 f''8 \override Beam #'auto-knee-gap = #6 f8 f''8 f8 f''8 }
See also
Notation Reference: Manual beams, Setting automatic beam behavior.
Installed Files: ‘scm/auto-beam.scm’.
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: Beam.
Known issues and warnings
Automatically kneed cross-staff beams cannot be used together with hidden staves. See Hiding staves.
Beams can collide with note heads and accidentals in other voices
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Automatic beams ] | [ Up : Beams ] | [ Manual beams > ] |
Setting automatic beam behavior
The placement of automatic beams is determined by the rules described in Automatic beams. There are two mutually exclusive ways in which these rules may be modified. The first, modifying the grouping of beats, applies to uncommon time signatures, i.e. those for which there are no predefined rules defining the beam end points. The second method, modifying the specification of the beam end points, can be used for any time signature. This second method must be used for those time signatures and beam durations combinations for which beam ending rules are pre-defined, unless these have all been reverted. There are predefined rules for time signatures of 3/2, 3/4, 4/4, 2/4, 4/8, 4/16, 6/8, 9/8 and 12/8.
Modifying the grouping of beats
If there are no beam-ending rules defined for the beam duration of a
particular beam in the time signature in use, its beaming is
controlled by three context properties:
measureLength
, beatLength
and beatGrouping
.
These properties may be set in the Score
, Staff
or
Voice
contexts to delimit their scope. The default values
are set while processing \time
commands, so the \set
commands must be placed after all \time
commands.
These determine the beaming as follows:
Beams may begin anywhere (unless a beam is already active). Beams
end at a time determined by the values of beatGrouping
and
beatLength
, as follows:
- If
beatGrouping
andbeatLength
are consistent withmeasureLength
,beatGrouping
is used to determine the end points of beams. - If
beatGrouping
andbeatLength
are inconsistent withmeasureLength
,beatLength
is used to determine the end points of beams.
Note: These three properties become effective for a particular beam only if there are no beam-ending rules predefined for that beam’s duration in the time signature in use, or if these beam-ending rules have all been reverted. |
By default the measureLength
and beatLength
are
derived from the time signature set by the \time
command.
The measureLength
is set to be exactly the same length as
the measure length given by the time signature, and the
beatLength
is set to be the same as one over the denominator
of the time signature.
The default value of beatGrouping
is taken from a table in
‘scm/music-functions.scm’. To find this, see
Other sources of information. It defines the beat
grouping for 5/8, 6/8, 8/8, 9/8 and 12/8 time signatures.
Both measureLength
and beatLength
are moments,
units of musical duration. A quantity of type moment is
created by the scheme function ly:make-moment
. For more
information about this function, see Time administration.
beatGrouping
is a list of integers giving the number of
beats in each group.
Selected Snippets
Grouping beats
Beaming patterns may be altered with the beatGrouping
property:
\relative c'' { \time 5/16 #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 16) 5 16) \set beatGrouping = #'(2 3) c8^"(2+3)" c16 c8 \set beatGrouping = #'(3 2) c8^"(3+2)" c16 c8 }
Specifying context with beatGrouping
By specifying the context, the effect of beatGrouping
can be
limited to the context specified, and the values which may have
been set in higher-level contexts can be overridden. The
\set
commands must be placed after all \time
commands:
\score { \new Staff << \time 7/8 \new Voice { \relative c'' { \set Staff.beatGrouping = #'(2 3 2) a8 a a a a a a } } \new Voice { \relative c' { \voiceTwo \set beatGrouping = #'(1 3 3) f8 f f f f f f } } >> }
Using beatLength and beatGrouping
The property measureLength
determines where bar lines
should be inserted and, with beatLength
and
beatGrouping
, how automatic beams should be generated
for beam durations and time signatures for which no beam-ending
rules are defined. This example shows several ways of controlling
beaming by setting these properties. The explanations are shown
as comments in the code.
\relative c'' { \time 3/4 % The default in 3/4 time is to beam in three groups % each of a quarter note length a16 a a a a a a a a a a a \time 12/16 % No auto-beaming is defined for 12/16 a16 a a a a a a a a a a a \time 3/4 % Change time signature symbol, but retain underlying 3/4 beaming \set Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(12 . 16) a16 a a a a a a a a a a a % The 3/4 time default grouping of (1 1 1) and beatLength of 1/8 % are not consistent with a measureLength of 3/4, so the beams % are grouped at beatLength intervals \set Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8) a16 a a a a a a a a a a a % Specify beams in groups of (3 3 2 3) 1/16th notes % 3+3+2+3=11, and 11*1/16<>3/4, so beatGrouping does not apply, % and beams are grouped at beatLength (1/16) intervals \set Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 16) \set Score.beatGrouping = #'(3 3 2 3) a16 a a a a a a a a a a a % Specify beams in groups of (3 4 2 3) 1/16th notes % 3+4+2+3=12, and 12*1/16=3/4, so beatGrouping applies \set Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 16) \set Score.beatGrouping = #'(3 4 2 3) a16 a a a a a a a a a a a }
Sub-dividing beams
The beams of consecutive 16th (or shorter) notes are, by default, not
sub-divided. That is, the three (or more) beams stretch unbroken over
entire groups of notes. This behavior can be modified to sub-divide
the beams into sub-groups by setting the property
subdivideBeams
. When set, multiple beams will be sub-divided at
intervals defined by the current value of beatLength
by reducing
the multiple beams to just one beam between the sub-groups. Note that
beatLength
defaults to one over the denominator of the current
time signature if not set explicitly. It must be set to a fraction
giving the duration of the beam sub-group using the make-moment
function, as shown here:
\relative c'' { c32[ c c c c c c c] \set subdivideBeams = ##t c32[ c c c c c c c] % Set beam sub-group length to an eighth note \set beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8) c32[ c c c c c c c] % Set beam sub-group length to a sixteenth note \set beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 16) c32[ c c c c c c c] }
Conducting signs, measure grouping signs
Options to group beats within a bar are available through the Scheme
function set-time-signature
, which takes three arguments: the
number of beats, the beat length, and the internal grouping of beats in
the measure. If the Measure_grouping_engraver
is included, the
function will also create MeasureGrouping
signs. Such signs
ease reading rhythmically complex modern music. In the example, the
9/8 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to
set-time-signature
as the third argument: '(2 2 2 3)
:
\score { \relative c'' { #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3)) #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 9 8) 3 8) #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 9 8) 1 4) #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 9 8) 2 4) #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 9 8) 3 4) g8 g d d g g a( bes g) | #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2)) a4. g4 } \layout { \context { \Staff \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver" } } }
Modifying the beam end points
In common time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note
but can end at only a few positions within the measure, namely at
durations specified by the properties in autoBeamSettings
.
These properties consist of a list of rules defining where beams can
end. The default autoBeamSettings
rules are defined in
‘scm/auto-beam.scm’. To find this, see
Other sources of information.
This method must be used for the time signatures for which beam-ending rules are defined by default, unless these have all been reverted. It is also particularly suitable for many other time signatures if the time signature of the measures changes frequently, or if the beaming should be different for different beam durations.
In order to add a rule to the list, use
#(override-auto-beam-setting '(beam-limit beam-numerator beam-denominator time-signature-numerator time-signature-denominator) moment-numerator moment-denominator [context])
where
-
beam-limit
is the type of automatic beam limit defined. This can be eitherbegin
orend
but onlyend
is effective. -
beam-numerator/beam-denominator
is the beam duration to which the rule is to apply. A beam is considered to have the duration of its shortest note. Setbeam-numerator
andbeam-denominator
to'*'
to have this rule apply to beams of any duration. -
time-signature-numerator/time-signature-denominator
specifies the time signature to which this rule should apply. Iftime-signature-numerator
andtime-signature-denominator
are set to'*'
this rule will apply in any time signature. -
monent-numerator/moment-denominator
is the position in the bar at which the beam should end. -
context
is optional, and it specifies the context at which the change should be made. The default is'Voice
.#(score-override-auto-beam-setting '(A B C D) E F)
is equivalent to#(override-auto-beam-setting '(A B C D) E F 'Score)
.
For example, if automatic beams should always end on the first quarter note, whatever the time signature or beam duration, use
a8 a a a a a a a #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * * *) 1 4) a8 a a a a a a a
You can force the beam settings to take effect only on beams whose shortest note is a certain duration
\time 2/4 % end 1/16 beams for all time signatures at the 1/16 moment #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 16 * *) 1 16) a16 a a a a a a a | a32 a a a a16 a a a a a | % end 1/32 beams for all time signatures at the 1/16 moment #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 32 * *) 1 16) a32 a a a a16 a a a a a |
You can force the beam settings to take effect only in certain time signatures
\time 5/8 % end beams of all durations in 5/8 time signature at the 2/8 moment #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 8) 2 8) c8 c d d d \time 4/4 e8 e f f e e d d \time 5/8 c8 c d d d
When multiple voices are used the Staff
context must be
specified if the beaming is to be applied to all voices in the
staff:
\time 7/8 % rhythm 3-1-1-2 % Context not specified - does not work correctly #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 3 8) #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 4 8) #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 5 8) << {a8 a a a16 a a a a8 a} \\ {f4. f8 f f f} >> % Works correctly with context specified #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 3 8 'Staff) #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 4 8 'Staff) #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 5 8 'Staff) << {a8 a a a16 a a a a8 a} \\ {f4. f8 f f f} >>
Note: If any unexpected beam behavior occurs, check the default automatic beam settings in ‘scm/auto-beam.scm’ for possible interference, because the beam endings defined there will still apply in addition to your own. |
Any unwanted or conflicting default endings must be reverted for your time signature(s). Existing auto-beam rules are removed by using
#(revert-auto-beam-setting '(beam-limit beam-numerator beam-denominator time-signature-numerator time-signature-denominator) moment-numerator moment-denominator [context])
beam-limit
, beam-numerator
, beam-denominator
,
time-signature-numerator
, time-signature-denominator
,
moment-numerator
, moment-denominator
and context
are the same as above.
\time 4/4 a16 a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a % undo a rule ending 1/16 beams in 4/4 time at 1/4 moment #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 16 4 4) 1 4) a16 a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
The rule in a revert-auto-beam-setting
statement must exactly
match the original rule. That is, no wildcard expansion is taken into
account.
\time 1/4 #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 16 1 4) 1 8) a16 a a a #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 16 * *) 1 8) % this won't revert it! a a a a #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 16 1 4) 1 8) % this will a a a a
Selected Snippets
Beam grouping in 7/8 time
There are no default automatic beam groupings specified for 7/8 time, so if automatic beams are required the grouping must be specified. For example, to group all beams 2-3-2 in 7/8 time, specify beam endings at 2/8 and 5/8:
\relative c'' { \time 7/8 % rhythm 2-3-2 a8 a a a a a a #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 2 8) #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 5 8) a8 a a a a a a }
Reverting default beam endings
To typeset beams grouped 3-4-3-2
in 12/8 it is necessary first
to override the default beam endings in 12/8, and then to set up the
new beaming endings:
\relative c'' { \time 12/8 % Default beaming a8 a a a a a a a a a a a % Revert default values in scm/auto-beam.scm for 12/8 time #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 12 8) 3 8) #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 12 8) 3 4) #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 12 8) 9 8) a8 a a a a a a a a a a a % Set new values for beam endings #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 12 8) 3 8) #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 12 8) 7 8) #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 12 8) 10 8) a8 a a a a a a a a a a a }
Beam endings in Score context
Beam-ending rules specified in the Score
context apply to all
staves, but can be modified at both Staff
and Voice
levels:
\relative c'' { \time 5/4 % Set default beaming for all staves #(score-override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 4) 3 8) #(score-override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 4) 7 8) << \new Staff { c8 c c c c c c c c c } \new Staff { % Modify beaming for just this staff #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 4) 6 8 'Staff) #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 4) 7 8 'Staff) c8 c c c c c c c c c } \new Staff { % Inherit beaming from Score context << { \voiceOne c8 c c c c c c c c c } % Modify beaming for this voice only \new Voice { \voiceTwo #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 4) 6 8) #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 4) 7 8) a8 a a a a a a a a a } >> } >> }
Predefined commands
\autoBeamOff
,
\autoBeamOn
.
Known issues and warnings
If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is
still accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
The same holds for polyphonic voices, entered with <<
… \\ … >>
. If a polyphonic voice ends while an
automatic beam is still accepting notes, it is not typeset.
See also
Snippets: Rhythms.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Setting automatic beam behavior ] | [ Up : Beams ] | [ Feathered beams > ] |
Manual beams
In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic
beaming algorithm. For example, the autobeamer will not put beams
over rests or bar lines, and in choral scores the beaming is
often set to follow the meter of the lyrics rather than the
notes. Such beams can be specified manually by
marking the begin and end point with [
and ]
{ r4 r8[ g' a r8] r8 g[ | a] r8 }
Individual notes may be marked with \noBeam
to prevent them
from being beamed:
\time 2/4 c8 c\noBeam c c
Even more strict manual control with the beams can be achieved by
setting the properties stemLeftBeamCount
and
stemRightBeamCount
. They specify the number of beams to
draw on the left and right side, respectively, of the next note.
If either property is set, its value will be used only once, and
then it is erased. In this example, the last f
is printed
with only one beam on the left side, i.e., the eighth-note beam of
the group as a whole.
a8[ r16 f g a] a8[ r16 \set stemLeftBeamCount = #2 \set stemRightBeamCount = #1 f \set stemLeftBeamCount = #1 g a]
Selected Snippets
Flat flags and beam nibs
Flat flags on lone notes and beam nibs at the ends of beamed figures
are both possible with a combination of stemLeftBeamCount
,
stemRightBeamCount
and paired []
beam indicators.
For right-pointing flat flags on lone notes, use paired []
beam
indicators and set stemLeftBeamCount
to zero (see Example 1).
For left-pointing flat flags, set stemRightBeamCount
instead
(Example 2).
For right-pointing nibs at the end of a run of beamed notes, set
stemRightBeamCount
to a positive value. And for left-pointing
nibs at the start of a run of beamed notes, set
stemLeftBeamCount
instead (Example 3).
Sometimes it may make sense for a lone note surrounded by rests to
carry both a left- and right-pointing flat flag. Do this with paired
[]
beam indicators alone (Example 4).
(Note that \set stemLeftBeamCount
is always equivalent to
\once \set
. In other words, the beam count settings are not
"sticky", so the pair of flat flags attached to the lone
c'16[]
in the last example have nothing to do with the
\set
two notes prior.)
\score { << % Example 1 \new RhythmicStaff { \set stemLeftBeamCount = #0 c16[] r8. } % Example 2 \new RhythmicStaff { r8. \set stemRightBeamCount = #0 c16[] } % Example 3 \new RhythmicStaff { c16 c \set stemRightBeamCount = #2 c16 r r \set stemLeftBeamCount = #2 c16 c c } % Example 4 \new RhythmicStaff { c16 c \set stemRightBeamCount = #2 c16 r c16[] r16 \set stemLeftBeamCount = #2 c16 c } >> }
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Manual beams ] | [ Up : Beams ] | [ Bars > ] |
Feathered beams
Feathered beams are used to indicate that a small group of notes
should be played at an increasing (or decreasing) tempo, without
changing the overall tempo of the piece. The extent of the
feathered beam must be indicated manually using [
and
]
, and the beam feathering is turned on by specifying a
direction to the Beam
property grow-direction
.
If the placement of the notes and the sound in the MIDI output
is to reflect the ritardando or accelerando indicated by the
feathered beam the notes must be grouped as a
music expression delimited by braces and preceded by a
featheredDurations
command which specifies the ratio
between the durations of the first and last notes in the group.
The square brackets show the extent of the beam and the braces show which notes are to have their durations modified. Normally these would delimit the same group of notes, but this is not required: the two commands are independent.
In the following example the eight 16th notes occupy exactly the same time as a half note, but the first note is one half as long as the last one, with the intermediate notes gradually lengthening. The first four 32nd notes gradually speed up, while the last four 32nd notes are at a constant tempo.
\override Beam #'grow-direction = #LEFT \featherDurations #(ly:make-moment 2 1) { c16[ c c c c c c c] } \override Beam #'grow-direction = #RIGHT \featherDurations #(ly:make-moment 2 3) { c32[ d e f] } % revert to non-feathered beams \override Beam #'grow-direction = #'() { g32[ a b c] }
The spacing in the printed output represents the note durations only approximately, but the MIDI output is exact.
Known issues and warnings
The \featherDurations
command only works with very short
music snippets, and when numbers in the fraction are small.
See also
Snippets: Rhythms.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Feathered beams ] | [ Up : Rhythms ] | [ Bar lines > ] |
1.2.5 Bars
Bar lines | ||
Bar numbers | ||
Bar and bar number checks | ||
Rehearsal marks |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Bars ] | [ Up : Bars ] | [ Bar numbers > ] |
Bar lines
Bar lines delimit measures, and are also used to indicate repeats. Normally, simple bar lines are automatically inserted into the printed output at places based on the current time signature.
The simple bar lines inserted automatically can be changed to
other types with the \bar
command. For example, a closing
double bar line is usually placed at the end of a piece:
e4 d c2 \bar "|."
It is not invalid if the final note in a measure does not end on the automatically entered bar line: the note is assumed to carry over into the next measure. But if a long sequence of such carry-over measures appears the music can appear compressed or even flowing off the page. This is because automatic line breaks happen only at the end of complete measures, i.e., where all notes end before the end of a measure.
Note: An incorrect duration can cause line breaks to be inhibited, leading to a line of highly compressed music or music which flows off the page. |
Line breaks are also permitted at manually inserted bar lines even within incomplete measures. To allow a line break without printing a bar line, use
\bar ""
This will insert an invisible bar line and allow (but not force) a line break to occur at this point. The bar number counter is not increased. To force a line break see Line breaking.
This and other special bar lines may be inserted manually at any point. When they coincide with the end of a measure they replace the simple bar line which would have been inserted there automatically. When they do not coincide with the end of a measure the specified bar line is inserted at that point in the printed output. Such insertions do not affect the calculation and placement of subsequent automatic bar lines.
The simple bar line and five types of double bar line are available for manual insertion:
f1 \bar "|" g \bar "||" a \bar ".|" b \bar ".|." c \bar "|.|" d \bar "|." e
together with dotted and dashed bar lines:
f1 \bar ":" g \bar "dashed" a
and five types of repeat bar line:
f1 \bar "|:" g \bar ":|:" a \bar ":|.|:" b \bar ":|.:" c \bar ":|" d
Although the bar line types signifying repeats may be inserted manually they do not in themselves cause LilyPond to recognize a repeated section. Such repeated sections are better entered using the various repeat commands (see Repeats), which automatically print the appropriate bar lines.
In addition, you can specify "||:"
, which is equivalent to
"|:"
except at line breaks, where it gives a double bar
line at the end of the line and a start repeat at the beginning of
the next line.
\override Score.RehearsalMark #'padding = #3 c c c c \bar "||:" c c c c \break \bar "||:" c c c c
In scores with many staves, a \bar
command in one staff is
automatically applied to all staves. The resulting bar lines are
connected between different staves of a StaffGroup
,
PianoStaff
, or GrandStaff
.
<< \new StaffGroup << \new Staff { e'4 d' \bar "||" f' e' } \new Staff { \clef bass c4 g e g } >> \new Staff { \clef bass c2 c2 } >>
Selected Snippets
The command \bar
bartype is a shortcut for
\set Timing.whichBar =
bartype. A bar line is
created whenever the whichBar
property is
set.
The default bar type used for automatically inserted bar lines is
"|"
. This may be changed at any time
with \set Timing.defaultBarType =
bartype.
See also
Notation Reference: Line breaking, Repeats, Grouping staves.
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: BarLine (created at Staff level), SpanBar (across staves), Timing_translator (for Timing properties).
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Bar lines ] | [ Up : Bars ] | [ Bar and bar number checks > ] |
Bar numbers
Bar numbers are typeset by default at the start of every line except
the first line. The number itself is stored in the
currentBarNumber
property, which is normally updated
automatically for every measure. It may also be set manually:
c1 c c c \break \set Score.currentBarNumber = #50 c1 c c c
Selected Snippets
Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of just at
the beginning of every line. To do this the default behavior
must be overridden to permit bar numbers to be printed at places
other than the start of a line. This is controlled by the
break-visibility
property of BarNumber
. This takes
three values which may be set to #t
or #f
to specify
whether the corresponding bar number is visible or not. The order
of the three values is end of line visible
, middle of
line visible
, beginning of line visible
. In the following
example bar numbers are printed at all possible places:
\override Score.BarNumber #'break-visibility = #'#(#t #t #t) \set Score.currentBarNumber = #11 \bar "" % Permit first bar number to be printed c1 c c c \break c c c c
and here the bar numbers are printed every two measures except at the end of the line:
\override Score.BarNumber #'break-visibility = #'#(#f #t #t) \set Score.currentBarNumber = #11 \bar "" % Permit first bar number to be printed % Print a bar number every second measure \set Score.barNumberVisibility = #(every-nth-bar-number-visible 2) c1 c c c c \break c c c c c
The size of the bar number may be changed. This is illustrated
in the following example, which also shows how to enclose bar
numbers in boxes and circles, and shows an alternative way
of specifying #(#f #t #t)
for break-visibility
.
% Prevent bar numbers at the end of a line and permit them elsewhere \override Score.BarNumber #'break-visibility = #end-of-line-invisible % Increase the size of the bar number by 2 \override Score.BarNumber #'font-size = #2 \repeat unfold 3 { c1 } \bar "|" % Draw a box round the following bar number(s) \override Score.BarNumber #'stencil = #(make-stencil-boxer 0.1 0.25 ly:text-interface::print) \repeat unfold 3 { c1 } \bar "|" % Draw a circle round the following bar number(s) \override Score.BarNumber #'stencil = #(make-stencil-circler 0.1 0.25 ly:text-interface::print) \repeat unfold 4 { c1 } \bar "|."
Bar numbers by default are left-aligned to their parent object. This is usually the left edge of a line or, if numbers are printed within a line, the left bar line of the measure. The numbers may also be positioned directly on the bar line or right-aligned to the bar line:
\set Score.currentBarNumber = #111 \override Score.BarNumber #'break-visibility = #'#(#t #t #t) % Increase the size of the bar number by 2 \override Score.BarNumber #'font-size = #2 % Print a bar number every second measure \set Score.barNumberVisibility = #(every-nth-bar-number-visible 2) c1 c1 % Center-align bar numbers \override Score.BarNumber #'self-alignment-X = #0 c1 c1 % Right-align bar numbers \override Score.BarNumber #'self-alignment-X = #-1 c1 c1
Bar numbers can be removed entirely by removing the
Bar_number_engraver
from the Score
context.
\layout { \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" } } \relative c''{ c4 c c c \break c4 c c c }
See also
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: BarNumber.
Known issues and warnings
Bar numbers may collide with the top of the
StaffGroup bracket, if there is one. To solve
this, the padding
property of
BarNumber can
be used to position the number correctly.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Bar numbers ] | [ Up : Bars ] | [ Rehearsal marks > ] |
Bar and bar number checks
Bar checks help detect errors in the entered durations. A bar check
may be entered using the bar symbol, |
, at any place where a
bar line is expected to fall. If bar check lines are encountered at
other places, a list of warnings is printed in the log file, showing
the line numbers and lines in which the bar checks failed. In the
next example, the second bar check will signal an error.
\time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2 |
Bar checks can also be used in lyrics, for example
\lyricmode { \time 2/4 Twin -- kle | Twin -- kle | }
An incorrect duration can result in a completely garbled score, especially if the score is polyphonic, so a good place to start correcting input is by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations.
If successive bar checks are off by the same musical interval, only the first warning message is displayed. This allows the warning to focus on the source of the timing error.
It is also possible to redefine the action taken when a bar check
or pipe symbol, |
, is encountered in the input, so that
it does something other than a bar check. This is done by
assigning a music expression to pipeSymbol
.
In the following example |
is set to insert a double bar
line wherever it appears in the input, rather than checking
for end of bar.
pipeSymbol = \bar "||" { c'2 c'2 | c'2 c'2 c'2 | c'2 c'2 c'2 }
When copying large pieces of music, it can be helpful to check
that the LilyPond bar number corresponds to the original that you
are entering from. This can be checked with
\barNumberCheck
, for example,
\barNumberCheck #123
will print a warning if the currentBarNumber
is not 123
when it is processed.
See also
Snippets: Rhythms.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Bar and bar number checks ] | [ Up : Bars ] | [ Special rhythmic concerns > ] |
Rehearsal marks
To print a rehearsal mark, use the \mark
command
c1 \mark \default c1 \mark \default c1 \mark #8 c1 \mark \default c1 \mark \default
The letter ‘I’ is skipped in accordance with engraving traditions. If you wish to include the letter ‘I’, then use
\set Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-alphabet
The mark is incremented automatically if you use \mark
\default
, but you can also use an integer argument to set the
mark manually. The value to use is stored in the property
rehearsalMark
.
The style is defined by the property markFormatter
. It is
a function taking the current mark (an integer) and the current
context as argument. It should return a markup object. In the
following example, markFormatter
is set to a pre-defined
procedure. After a few measures, it is set to a procedure that
produces a boxed number.
\set Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-numbers c1 \mark \default c1 \mark \default \set Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-box-numbers c1 \mark \default \set Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-circle-numbers c1 \mark \default \set Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-circle-letters c1
The file ‘scm/translation-functions.scm’ contains the
definitions of format-mark-numbers
(the default format),
format-mark-box-numbers
, format-mark-letters
and
format-mark-box-letters
. These can be used as inspiration
for other formatting functions.
You may use format-mark-barnumbers
,
format-mark-box-barnumbers
, and
format-mark-circle-barnumbers
to get bar numbers instead of
incremented numbers or letters.
Other styles of rehearsal mark can be specified manually
\mark "A1"
Score.markFormatter
does not affect marks specified in this
manner. However, it is possible to apply a \markup
to the
string.
\mark \markup{ \box A1 }
Music glyphs (such as the segno sign) may be printed inside a
\mark
c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts.segno" } c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts.coda" } c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts.ufermata" } c1
See The Feta font, for a list of symbols which may be
printed with \musicglyph
.
For common tweaks to the positioning of rehearsal marks, see Formatting text.
See also
Notation Reference: The Feta font, Formatting text.
Installed Files:
‘scm/translation-functions.scm’ contains
the definition of format-mark-numbers
and
format-mark-letters
. They can be used as inspiration for
other formatting functions.
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: RehearsalMark.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Rehearsal marks ] | [ Up : Rhythms ] | [ Grace notes > ] |
1.2.6 Special rhythmic concerns
Grace notes | ||
Aligning to cadenzas | ||
Time administration |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Special rhythmic concerns ] | [ Up : Special rhythmic concerns ] | [ Aligning to cadenzas > ] |
Grace notes
Grace notes are ornaments that are written out. Grace notes are printed in a smaller font and take up no logical time in a measure.
c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace { c16[ d16] } c2
Lilypond also supports two special types of grace notes, the acciaccatura–an unmeasured grace note indicated by a slurred small note with a slashed stem–and the appoggiatura, which takes a fixed fraction of the main note and appears in small print without a slash.
\grace c8 b4 \acciaccatura d8 c4 \appoggiatura e8 d4 \acciaccatura { g16[ f] } e4
The placement of grace notes is synchronized between different staves. In the following example, there are two sixteenth grace notes for every eighth grace note
<< \new Staff { e2 \grace { c16[ d e f] } e2 } \new Staff { c2 \grace { g8[ b] } c2 } >>
If you want to end a note with a grace, use the \afterGrace
command. It takes two arguments: the main note, and the grace
notes following the main note.
c1 \afterGrace d1 { c16[ d] } c1
This will put the grace notes after a space lasting 3/4 of the
length of the main note. The default fraction 3/4 can be changed by
setting afterGraceFraction
. The following example shows
the results from setting the space at the default, at 15/16, and
finally at 1/2 of the main note.
<< \new Staff { c1 \afterGrace d1 { c16[ d] } c1 } \new Staff { #(define afterGraceFraction (cons 15 16)) c1 \afterGrace d1 { c16[ d] } c1 } \new Staff { #(define afterGraceFraction (cons 1 2)) c1 \afterGrace d1 { c16[ d] } c1 } >>
The space between the main note and the grace note may also be specified using spacers. The following example places the grace note after a space lasting 7/8 of the main note.
\new Voice { << { d1^\trill_( } { s2 s4. \grace { c16[ d] } } >> c1) }
A \grace
music expression will introduce special
typesetting settings, for example, to produce smaller type, and
set directions. Hence, when introducing layout tweaks to
override the special settings, they should be placed inside
the grace expression. The overrides should also be reverted
inside the grace expression. Here, the grace note’s default stem
direction is overriden and then reverted.
\new Voice { \acciaccatura { \stemDown f16-> \stemNeutral } g4 e c2 }
Selected Snippets
The slash through the stem found in acciaccaturas can be applied in other situations:
\relative c'' { \override Stem #'stroke-style = #"grace" c8( d2) e8( f4) }
The layout of grace expressions can be changed throughout the
music using the function add-grace-property
. The following
example undefines the Stem
direction for this grace, so
that stems do not always point up.
\relative c'' { \new Staff { #(add-grace-property 'Voice 'Stem 'direction ly:stem::calc-direction) #(remove-grace-property 'Voice 'Stem 'direction) \new Voice { \acciaccatura { f16 } g4 \grace { d16[ e] } f4 \appoggiatura { a,32[ b c d] } e2 } } }
Another option is to change the variables startGraceMusic
,
stopGraceMusic
, startAcciaccaturaMusic
,
stopAcciaccaturaMusic
, startAppoggiaturaMusic
,
stopAppoggiaturaMusic
. The default values of these can be
seen in the file ly/grace-init.ly
. By redefining
them other effects may be obtained.
Grace notes may be forced to align with regular notes in other staves:
\relative c'' { << \override Score.SpacingSpanner #'strict-grace-spacing = ##t \new Staff { c4 \afterGrace c4 { c16[ c8 c16] } c4 r } \new Staff { c16 c c c c c c c c4 r } >> }
See also
Music Glossary: grace notes, acciaccatura, appoggiatura.
Installed Files: ‘ly/grace-init.ly’.
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: GraceMusic.
Known issues and warnings
A multi-note beamed acciaccatura is printed without a slash, and looks exactly the same as a multi-note beamed appoggiatura.
Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation, such as key signatures, bar lines, etc., are also synchronized. Take care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without, for example,
<< \new Staff { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d2. } \new Staff { c4 \bar "|:" d2. } >>
This can be remedied by inserting grace skips of the corresponding durations in the other staves. For the above example
<< \new Staff { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d2. } \new Staff { c4 \bar "|:" \grace s16 d2. } >>
Grace sections should only be used within sequential music expressions. Nesting or juxtaposing grace sections is not supported, and might produce crashes or other errors.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Grace notes ] | [ Up : Special rhythmic concerns ] | [ Time administration > ] |
Aligning to cadenzas
In an orchestral context, cadenzas present a special problem: when constructing a score that includes a measured cadenza or other solo passage, all other instruments should skip just as many notes as the length of the cadenza, otherwise they will start too soon or too late.
One solution to this problem is to use the functions
mmrest-of-length
and skip-of-length
. These Scheme
functions take a defined piece of music as an argument and generate a
multi-measure rest or \skip
exactly as long as the piece.
MyCadenza = \relative c' { c4 d8 e f g g4 f2 g4 g } \new GrandStaff << \new Staff { \MyCadenza c'1 \MyCadenza c'1 } \new Staff { #(ly:export (mmrest-of-length MyCadenza)) c'1 #(ly:export (skip-of-length MyCadenza)) c'1 } >>
See also
Music Glossary: cadenza.
Snippets: Rhythms.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Aligning to cadenzas ] | [ Up : Special rhythmic concerns ] | [ Expressive marks > ] |
Time administration
Time is administered by the Timing_translator
, which by
default is to be found in the Score
context. An alias,
Timing
, is added to the context in which the
Timing_translator
is placed.
The following properties of Timing
are used
to keep track of timing within the score.
-
currentBarNumber
The current measure number. For an example showing the use of this property see Bar numbers.
-
measureLength
The length of the measures in the current time signature. For a 4/4 time this is 1, and for 6/8 it is 3/4. Its value determines when bar lines are inserted and how automatic beams should be generated.
-
measurePosition
The point within the measure where we currently are. This quantity is reset by subtracting
measureLength
whenevermeasureLength
is reached or exceeded. When that happens,currentBarNumber
is incremented.-
timing
If set to true, the above variables are updated for every time step. When set to false, the engraver stays in the current measure indefinitely.
Timing can be changed by setting any of these variables
explicitly. In the next example, the default 4/4 time
signature is printed, but measureLength
is set to 5/4.
At 4/8 through the third measure, the measurePosition
is
advanced by 1/8 to 5/8, shortening that bar by 1/8.
The next bar line then falls at 9/8 rather than 5/4.
\set Score.measureLength = #(ly:make-moment 5 4) c1 c4 c1 c4 c4 c4 \set Score.measurePosition = #(ly:make-moment 5 8) b4 b4 b8 c4 c1
As the example illustrates, ly:make-moment n m
constructs a
duration of n/m of a whole note. For example,
ly:make-moment 1 8
is an eighth note duration and
ly:make-moment 7 16
is the duration of seven sixteenths
notes.
See also
This manual: Bar numbers, Unmetered music
Snippets: Rhythms.
Internals Reference: Timing_translator, Score
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Time administration ] | [ Up : Musical notation ] | [ Attached to notes > ] |
1.3 Expressive marks
This section lists various expressive marks that can be created in a score.
1.3.1 Attached to notes | ||
1.3.2 Curves | ||
1.3.3 Lines |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Expressive marks ] | [ Up : Expressive marks ] | [ Articulations and ornamentations > ] |
1.3.1 Attached to notes
This section explains how to create expressive marks that are attached to notes: articulations, ornamentations, and dynamics. Methods to create new dynamic markings are also discussed.
Articulations and ornamentations | ||
Dynamics | ||
New dynamic marks |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Attached to notes ] | [ Up : Attached to notes ] | [ Dynamics > ] |
Articulations and ornamentations
A variety of symbols that denote articulations, ornamentations, and other performance indications can be attached to a note using this syntax:
note\name
The possible values for name are listed in List of articulations. For example:
c4\staccato c\mordent b2\turn c1\fermata
Some of these articulations have shorthands for easier entry.
Shorthands are appended to the note name, and their syntax
consists of a dash -
followed by a symbol signifying the
articulation. Predefined shorthands exist for marcato,
stopped, tenuto, staccatissimo,
accent, staccato, and portato.
Their corresponding output appears as follows:
c4-^ c-+ c-- c-| c4-> c-. c2-_
The rules for the default placement of articulations are defined in ‘scm/script.scm’. Articulations and ornamentations may be manually placed above or below the staff, see Direction and placement.
Selected Snippets
Modifying default values for articulation shorthand notation
The shorthands are defined in ‘ly/script-init.ly’, where the
variables dashHat
, dashPlus
, dashDash
,
dashBar
, dashLarger
, dashDot
, and
dashUnderscore
are assigned default values. The default values
for the shorthands can be modified. For example, to associate the
-+
(dashPlus
) shorthand with the trill symbol instead of
the default + symbol, assign the value trill
to the variable
dashPlus
:
\relative c'' { c1-+ } dashPlus = "trill" \relative c'' { c1-+ }
Controlling the vertical ordering of scripts
The vertical ordering of scripts is controlled with the
'script-priority
property. The lower this number, the closer it
will be put to the note. In this example, the TextScript
(the
sharp symbol) first has the lowest priority, so it is put lowest in the
first example. In the second, the prall trill (the Script
) has
the lowest, so it is on the inside. When two objects have the same
priority, the order in which they are entered determines which one
comes first.
\relative c''' { \once \override TextScript #'script-priority = #-100 a2^\prall^\markup { \sharp } \once \override Script #'script-priority = #-100 a2^\prall^\markup { \sharp } }
Creating a delayed turn
Creating a delayed turn, where the lower note of the
turn uses the accidental, requires several overrides. The
outside-staff-priority
property must be set to #f
,
as otherwise this would take precedence over the
avoid-slur property
. The value of halign
is used
to position the turn horizontally.
\relative c'' { \once \override TextScript #'avoid-slur = #'inside \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-priority = ##f c2(^\markup \tiny \override #'(baseline-skip . 1) { \halign #-4 \center-column { \sharp \musicglyph #"scripts.turn" } } d4.) c8 }
See also
Music Glossary: tenuto, accent, staccato, portato.
Notation Reference: Direction and placement, List of articulations, Trills.
Installed Files: ‘scm/script.scm’.
Snippets: Expressive marks.
Internals Reference: Script, TextScript.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Articulations and ornamentations ] | [ Up : Attached to notes ] | [ New dynamic marks > ] |
Dynamics
Absolute dynamic marks are specified using a command after a note,
such as c4\ff
. The available dynamic marks are
\ppppp
, \pppp
, \ppp
, \pp
, \p
,
\mp
, \mf
, \f
, \ff
, \fff
,
\ffff
, \fp
, \sf
, \sff
, \sp
,
\spp
, \sfz
, and \rfz
. The dynamic marks may
be manually placed above or below the staff, see
Direction and placement.
c2\ppp c\mp c2\rfz c^\mf c2_\spp c^\ff
A crescendo mark is started with \<
and
terminated with \!
, an absolute dynamic, or an additional
crescendo or decrescendo mark. A decrescendo mark is
started with \>
and is also terminated with \!
, an
absolute dynamic, or another crescendo or decrescendo mark.
\cr
and \decr
may be used instead of \<
and
\>
. Hairpins are engraved by default using this
notation.
c2\< c\! d2\< d\f e2\< e\> f2\> f\! e2\> e\mp d2\> d\> c1\!
Spacer rests are needed to engrave multiple marks on one note.
c4\< c\! d\> e\! << f1 { s4 s4\< s4\> s4\! } >>
In some situations the \espressivo
articulation mark may be
the appropriate choice to indicate a crescendo and decrescendo on
one note:
c2 b4 a g1\espressivo
Crescendos and decrescendos can be engraved as textual markings
instead of hairpins. Dashed lines are printed to indicate their
extent. The built-in commands that enable these text modes are
\crescTextCresc
, \dimTextDecresc
,
\dimTextDecr
, and \dimTextDim
. The corresponding
\crescHairpin
and \dimHairpin
commands will revert
to hairpins again:
\crescTextCresc c2\< d | e f\! \dimTextDecresc e2\> d | c b\! \crescHairpin c2\< d | e f\! \dimHairpin e2\> d\!
To create new absolute dynamic marks or text that should be aligned with dynamics, see New dynamic marks.
Vertical positioning of dynamics is handled by DynamicLineSpanner.
Predefined commands
\dynamicUp
,
\dynamicDown
,
\dynamicNeutral
,
\crescTextCresc
,
\dimTextDim
,
\dimTextDecr
,
\dimTextDecresc
,
\crescHairpin
,
\dimHairpin
.
Selected Snippets
Setting hairpin behavior at bar lines
If the note which ends a hairpin falls on a downbeat,
the hairpin stops at the bar line immediately preceding. This behavior
can be controlled by overriding the 'to-barline
property.
\relative c'' { e4\< e2. e1\! \override Hairpin #'to-barline = ##f e4\< e2. e1\! }
Setting the minimum length of hairpins
If hairpins are too short, they can be lengthened by modifying the
minimum-length
property of the Hairpin
object.
\relative c'' { c4\< c\! d\> e\! \override Hairpin #'minimum-length = #5 << f1 { s4 s\< s\> s\! } >> }
Printing hairpins using al niente notation
Hairpins may be printed with a circled tip (al niente notation) by
setting the circled-tip
property of the Hairpin
object to
#t
.
\relative c'' { \override Hairpin #'circled-tip = ##t c2\< c\! c4\> c\< c2\! }
Vertically aligned dynamics and textscripts
By setting the 'Y-extent
property to a suitable value, all
DynamicLineSpanner
objects (hairpins and dynamic texts) can be
aligned to a common reference point, regardless of their actual extent.
This way, every element will be vertically aligned, thus producing a
more pleasing output.
The same idea is used to align the text scripts along their baseline.
music = \relative c'' { c2\p^\markup { gorgeous } c\f^\markup { fantastic } c4\p c\f\> c c\!\p } { \music \break \override DynamicLineSpanner #'staff-padding = #2.0 \override DynamicLineSpanner #'Y-extent = #'(-1.5 . 1.5) \override TextScript #'Y-extent = #'(-1.5 . 1.5) \music }
Hiding the extender line for text dynamics
Text style dynamic changes (such as cresc. and dim.) are printed with a dashed line showing their extent. This line can be suppressed in the following way:
\relative c'' { \override DynamicTextSpanner #'dash-period = #-1.0 \crescTextCresc c1\< | d | b | c\! }
Changing text and spanner styles for text dynamics
The text used for crescendos and decrescendos can be changed by
modifying the context properties crescendoText
and
decrescendoText
. The style of the spanner line can be
changed by modifying the 'style
property of
DynamicTextSpanner
. The default value is 'hairpin
,
and other possible values include 'line
, 'dashed-line
and 'dotted-line
:
\relative c'' { \set crescendoText = \markup { \italic { cresc. poco } } \set crescendoSpanner = #'text \override DynamicTextSpanner #'style = #'dotted-line a2\< a a2 a a2 a a2 a\mf }
See also
Music Glossary: al niente, crescendo, decrescendo, hairpin.
Learning Manual: Articulation and dynamics.
Notation Reference: Direction and placement, New dynamic marks, What goes into the MIDI output?, Controlling MIDI dynamics.
Snippets: Expressive marks.
Internals Reference: DynamicText, Hairpin, DynamicLineSpanner.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Dynamics ] | [ Up : Attached to notes ] | [ Curves > ] |
New dynamic marks
The easiest way to create dynamic indications is to use
\markup
objects.
moltoF = \markup { molto \dynamic f } \relative c' { <d e>16_\moltoF <d e> <d e>2.. }
In markup mode, editorial dynamics (within parentheses or square brackets) can be created. The syntax for markup mode is described in Formatting text.
roundF = \markup { \center-align \concat { \bold { \italic ( } \dynamic f \bold { \italic ) } } } boxF = \markup { \bracket { \dynamic f } } \relative c' { c1_\roundF c1_\boxF }
Simple, centered dynamic marks are easily created with the
make-dynamic-script
function. The dynamic font only
contains the characters f,m,p,r,s
and z
.
sfzp = #(make-dynamic-script "sfzp") \relative c' { c4 c c\sfzp c }
In general, make-dynamic-script
takes any markup object as
its argument. In the following example, using
make-dynamic-script
ensures the vertical alignment of
markup objects and hairpins that are attached to the same note
head.
roundF = \markup { \center-align \concat { \normal-text { \bold { \italic ( } } \dynamic f \normal-text { \bold { \italic ) } } } } boxF = \markup { \bracket { \dynamic f } } roundFdynamic = #(make-dynamic-script roundF) boxFdynamic = #(make-dynamic-script boxF) \relative c' { c4_\roundFdynamic\< d e f g,1_\boxFdynamic }
The Scheme form of markup mode may be used instead. Its syntax is explained in Markup construction in Scheme.
moltoF = #(make-dynamic-script (markup #:normal-text "molto" #:dynamic "f")) \relative c' { <d e>16 <d e> <d e>2..\moltoF }
Font settings in markup mode are described in Selecting font and font size.
See also
Notation Reference: Formatting text, Selecting font and font size, Markup construction in Scheme, What goes into the MIDI output?, Controlling MIDI dynamics.
Snippets: Expressive marks.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < New dynamic marks ] | [ Up : Expressive marks ] | [ Slurs > ] |
1.3.2 Curves
This section explains how to create various expressive marks that are curved: normal slurs, phrasing slurs, breath marks, falls, and doits.
Slurs | ||
Phrasing slurs | ||
Breath marks | ||
Falls and doits |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Curves ] | [ Up : Curves ] | [ Phrasing slurs > ] |
Slurs
Slurs are entered using parentheses:
f4( g a) a8 b( a4 g2 f4) <c e>2( <b d>2)
Slurs may be manually placed above or below the notes, see Direction and placement.
c2( d) \slurDown c2( d) \slurNeutral c2( d)
Simultaneous or overlapping slurs are not permitted, but a phrasing slur can overlap a slur. This permits two slurs to be printed at once. For details, see Phrasing slurs.
Slurs can be solid, dotted, or dashed. Solid is the default slur style:
c4( e g2) \slurDashed g4( e c2) \slurDotted c4( e g2) \slurSolid g4( e c2)
Predefined commands
\slurUp
,
\slurDown
,
\slurNeutral
,
\slurDashed
,
\slurDotted
,
\slurSolid
.
Selected Snippets
Using double slurs for legato chords
Some composers write two slurs when they want legato chords. This can
be achieved by setting doubleSlurs
.
\relative c' { \set doubleSlurs = ##t <c e>4( <d f> <c e> <d f>) }
Positioning text markups inside slurs
Text markups need to have the outside-staff-priority
property
set to false in order to be printed inside slurs.
\relative c'' { \override TextScript #'avoid-slur = #'inside \override TextScript #'outside-staff-priority = ##f c2(^\markup { \halign #-10 \natural } d4.) c8 }
See also
Music Glossary: slur.
Learning Manual: On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties.
Notation Reference: Direction and placement, Phrasing slurs.
Snippets: Expressive marks.
Internals Reference: Slur.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Slurs ] | [ Up : Curves ] | [ Breath marks > ] |
Phrasing slurs
Phrasing slurs (or phrasing marks) that indicate a
musical sentence are written using the commands \(
and
\)
respectively:
c4\( d( e) f( e2) d\)
Typographically, a phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
normal slur. However, they are treated as different objects; a
\slurUp
will have no effect on a phrasing slur. Phrasing
slurs may be manually placed above or below the notes, see
Direction and placement.
c4\( g' c,( b) | c1\) \phrasingSlurUp c4\( g' c,( b) | c1\)
Simultaneous or overlapping phrasing slurs are not permitted.
Phrasing slurs can be solid, dotted, or dashed. Solid is the default style for phrasing slurs:
c4\( e g2\) \phrasingSlurDashed g4\( e c2\) \phrasingSlurDotted c4\( e g2\) \phrasingSlurSolid g4\( e c2\)
Predefined commands
\phrasingSlurUp
,
\phrasingSlurDown
,
\phrasingSlurNeutral
,
\phrasingSlurDashed
,
\phrasingSlurDotted
,
\phrasingSlurSolid
.
See also
Learning Manual: On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties.
Notation Reference: Direction and placement.
Snippets: Expressive marks.
Internals Reference: PhrasingSlur.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Phrasing slurs ] | [ Up : Curves ] | [ Falls and doits > ] |
Breath marks
Breath marks are entered using \breathe
:
c2. \breathe d4
Musical indicators for breath marks in ancient notation, divisiones, are supported. For details, see Divisiones.
Selected Snippets
Changing the breath mark symbol
The glyph of the breath mark can be tuned by overriding the text
property of the BreathingSign
layout object with any markup
text.
\relative c'' { c2 \override BreathingSign #'text = \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts.rvarcomma" } \breathe d2 }
Inserting a caesura
Caesura marks can be created by overriding the 'text
property of the BreathingSign
object. A curved caesura
mark is also available.
\relative c'' { \override BreathingSign #'text = \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts.caesura.straight" } c8 e4. \breathe g8. e16 c4 \override BreathingSign #'text = \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts.caesura.curved" } g8 e'4. \breathe g8. e16 c4 }
See also
Music Glossary: caesura.
Notation Reference: Divisiones.
Snippets: Expressive marks.
Internals Reference: BreathingSign.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Breath marks ] | [ Up : Curves ] | [ Lines > ] |
Falls and doits
Falls and doits can be added to notes using
the \bendAfter
command. The direction of the fall or doit
is indicated with a plus or minus (up or down). The number
indicates the pitch interval that the fall or doit will extend
beyond the main note.
c2-\bendAfter #+4 c2-\bendAfter #-4 c2-\bendAfter #+8 c2-\bendAfter #-8
The dash -
immediately preceding the \bendAfter
command is required when writing falls and doits.
Selected Snippets
Adjusting the shape of falls and doits
The shortest-duration-space
property may have to be tweaked to
adjust the shape of falls and doits.
\relative c'' { \override Score.SpacingSpanner #'shortest-duration-space = #4.0 c2-\bendAfter #+5 c2-\bendAfter #-3 c2-\bendAfter #+8 c2-\bendAfter #-6 }
See also
Snippets: Expressive marks.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Falls and doits ] | [ Up : Expressive marks ] | [ Glissando > ] |
1.3.3 Lines
This section explains how to create various expressive marks that follow a linear path: glissandos, arpeggios, and trills.
Glissando | ||
Arpeggio | ||
Trills |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Lines ] | [ Up : Lines ] | [ Arpeggio > ] |
Glissando
A glissando is created by attaching \glissando
to a note:
g2\glissando g' c2\glissando c,
Different styles of glissandi can be created. For details, see Line styles.
Selected Snippets
Contemporary glissando
A contemporary glissando without a final note can be typeset using a hidden note and cadenza timing.
\relative c'' { \time 3/4 \override Glissando #'style = #'zigzag c4 c \cadenzaOn c4\glissando \hideNotes c,,4 \unHideNotes \cadenzaOff \bar "|" }
See also
Music Glossary: glissando.
Notation Reference: Line styles.
Snippets: Expressive marks.
Internals Reference: Glissando.
Known issues and warnings
Printing text over the line (such as gliss.) is not supported.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Glissando ] | [ Up : Lines ] | [ Trills > ] |
Arpeggio
An arpeggio on a chord (also known as a broken chord)
is denoted by appending \arpeggio
to the chord construct:
<c e g c>1\arpeggio
Different types of arpeggios may be written.
\arpeggioNormal
reverts to a normal arpeggio:
<c e g c>2\arpeggio \arpeggioArrowUp <c e g c>2\arpeggio \arpeggioArrowDown <c e g c>2\arpeggio \arpeggioNormal <c e g c>2\arpeggio
Special bracketed arpeggio symbols can be created:
<c e g c>2 \arpeggioBracket <c e g c>2\arpeggio \arpeggioParenthesis <c e g c>2\arpeggio \arpeggioNormal <c e g c>2\arpeggio
Arpeggios can be explicitly written out with ties. For more information, see Ties.
Predefined commands
\arpeggio
,
\arpeggioArrowUp
,
\arpeggioArrowDown
,
\arpeggioNormal
,
\arpeggioBracket
,
\arpeggioParenthesis
.
Selected Snippets
Creating cross-staff arpeggios in a piano staff
In a PianoStaff
, it is possible to let an arpeggio cross between
the staves by setting the property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios
.
\new PianoStaff \relative c'' << \set PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t \new Staff { <c e g c>4\arpeggio <g c e g>4\arpeggio <e g c e>4\arpeggio <c e g c>4\arpeggio } \new Staff { \clef bass \repeat unfold 4 { <c,, e g c>4\arpeggio } } >>
Creating cross-staff arpeggios in other contexts
Cross-staff arpeggios can be created in contexts other than
PianoStaff
if the Span_arpeggio_engraver
is included in
the Score
context.
\score { \new StaffGroup { \set Score.connectArpeggios = ##t << \new Voice \relative c' { <c e>2\arpeggio <d f>2\arpeggio <c e>1\arpeggio } \new Voice \relative c { \clef bass <c g'>2\arpeggio <b g'>2\arpeggio <c g'>1\arpeggio } >> } \layout { \context { \Score \consists "Span_arpeggio_engraver" } } }
Creating arpeggios across notes in different voices
An arpeggio can be drawn across notes in different voices on the same
staff if the Span_arpeggio_engraver
is moved to the Staff
context:
\new Staff \with { \consists "Span_arpeggio_engraver" } \relative c' { \set Staff.connectArpeggios = ##t << { <e' g>4\arpeggio <d f> <d f>2 } \\ { <d, f>2\arpeggio <g b>2 } >> }
See also
Music Glossary: arpeggio.
Notation Reference: Ties.
Snippets: Expressive marks.
Internals Reference: Arpeggio, PianoStaff.
Known issues and warnings
It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
arpeggios in one PianoStaff
at the same point in
time.
The parenthesis-style arpeggio brackets do not work for cross-staff arpeggios.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Arpeggio ] | [ Up : Lines ] | [ Repeats > ] |
Trills
Short trills without an extender line are printed with
\trill
; see Articulations and ornamentations.
Longer trills with an extender line are made with
\startTrillSpan
and \stopTrillSpan
:
d1~\startTrillSpan d1 c2\stopTrillSpan r2
In the following example, a trill is combined with grace notes. The syntax of this construct and the method to precisely position the grace notes are described in Grace notes.
c1 \afterGrace d1\startTrillSpan { c32[ d]\stopTrillSpan } e2 r2
Trills that require an auxiliary note with an explicit pitch can
be typeset with the \pitchedTrill
command. The first
argument is the main note, and the second is the trilled
note, printed as a stemless note head in parentheses.
\pitchedTrill e2\startTrillSpan fis d\stopTrillSpan
In the following example, the second pitched trill is ambiguous; the accidental of the trilled note is not printed. As a workaround, the accidentals of the trilled notes can be forced. The second measure illustrates this method:
\pitchedTrill eis4\startTrillSpan fis g\stopTrillSpan \pitchedTrill eis4\startTrillSpan fis g\stopTrillSpan \pitchedTrill eis4\startTrillSpan fis g\stopTrillSpan \pitchedTrill eis4\startTrillSpan fis! g\stopTrillSpan
Predefined commands
\startTrillSpan
,
\stopTrillSpan
.
See also
Music Glossary: trill.
Notation Reference: Articulations and ornamentations, Grace notes.
Snippets: Expressive marks.
Internals Reference: TrillSpanner.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Trills ] | [ Up : Musical notation ] | [ Long repeats > ] |
1.4 Repeats
Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist for repetitions. LilyPond supports the following kinds of repeats:
-
volta
The repeated music is not written out but enclosed between repeat bar lines. If the repeat is at the beginning of a piece, a repeat bar line is only printed at the end of the repeat. Alternative endings (volte) are printed left to right with brackets. This is the standard notation for repeats with alternatives.
-
unfold
The repeated music is fully written out, as many times as specified by repeatcount. This is useful when entering repetitious music.
-
percent
These are beat or measure repeats. They look like single slashes or percent signs.
-
tremolo
This is used to write tremolo beams.
1.4.1 Long repeats | ||
1.4.2 Short repeats |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Repeats ] | [ Up : Repeats ] | [ Normal repeats > ] |
1.4.1 Long repeats
This section discusses how to input long (usually multi-measure) repeats. The repeats can take two forms: repeats enclosed between repeat signs; or written out repeats, used to input repetitious music. Repeat signs can also be controlled manually.
Normal repeats | ||
Manual repeat marks | ||
Written-out repeats |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Long repeats ] | [ Up : Long repeats ] | [ Manual repeat marks > ] |
Normal repeats
The syntax for a normal repeat is
\repeat volta repeatcount musicexpr
where musicexpr is a music expression. Alternate endings can be
produced using \alternative
. In order to delimit the alternate
endings, the group of alternatives must be enclosed in a set of
braces. If there are more repeats than there are alternate endings,
the earliest repeats are given the first alternative.
Normal repeats without alternate endings:
\repeat volta 2 { c4 d e f } c2 d \repeat volta 2 { d4 e f g }
Normal repeats with alternate endings:
\repeat volta 4 { c4 d e f } \alternative { { d2 e } { f2 g } } c1
Repeats with upbeats can be entered in two ways:
\partial 4 e | \repeat volta 4 { c2 d | e2 f | } \alternative { { g4 g g e } { a4 a a a | b2. } }
or
\partial 4 \repeat volta 4 { e4 | c2 d | e2 f | } \alternative { { \partial 4*3 g4 g g } { a4 a a a | b2. } }
Ties may be added to a second ending:
c1 \repeat volta 2 { c4 d e f ~ } \alternative { { f2 d } { f2\repeatTie f, } }
Selected Snippets
Shortening volta brackets
By default, the volta brackets will be drawn over all of the
alternative music, but it is possible to shorten them by setting
voltaSpannerDuration
. In the next example, the bracket only
lasts one measure, which is a duration of 3/4.
\relative c'' { \time 3/4 c4 c c \set Score.voltaSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 3 4) \repeat volta 5 { d4 d d } \alternative { { e4 e e f4 f f } { g4 g g } } }
Adding volta brackets to additional staves
The Volta_engraver
by default resides in the Score
context, and brackets for the repeat are thus normally only printed
over the topmost staff. This can be adjusted by adding the
Volta_engraver
to the Staff
context where the brackets
should appear; see also the "Volta multi staff" snippet.
<< \new Staff { \repeat volta 2 { c'1 } \alternative { c' } } \new Staff { \repeat volta 2 { c'1 } \alternative { c' } } \new Staff \with { \consists "Volta_engraver" } { c'2 g' e' a' } \new Staff { \repeat volta 2 { c'1 } \alternative { c' } } >>
See also
Music Glossary: repeat, volta.
Notation Reference: Bar lines, Modifying context plug-ins.
Snippets: Repeats.
Internals Reference: VoltaBracket, RepeatedMusic, VoltaRepeatedMusic, UnfoldedRepeatedMusic.
Known issues and warnings
A nested repeat like
\repeat … \repeat … \alternative
is ambiguous, since it is is not clear to which \repeat
the
\alternative
belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always
having the \alternative
belong to the inner \repeat
.
For clarity, it is advisable to use braces in such situations.
Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
so after a repeat timing information must be reset by hand; for
example, by setting Score.measurePosition
or entering
\partial
. Similarly, slurs are also not repeated.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Normal repeats ] | [ Up : Long repeats ] | [ Written-out repeats > ] |
Manual repeat marks
Note: These methods are only used for displaying unusual repeat
constructs, and may produce unexpected behavior. In most cases,
repeats should be created using the standard |
The property repeatCommands
can be used to control the
layout of repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands.
-
start-repeat
Print a
|:
bar line.c1 \set Score.repeatCommands = #'(start-repeat) d4 e f g c1
As per standard engraving practice, repeat signs are not printed at the beginning of a piece.
-
end-repeat
Print a
:|
bar line:c1 d4 e f g \set Score.repeatCommands = #'(end-repeat) c1
-
(volta number) ... (volta #f)
Create a new volta with the specified number. The volta bracket must be explicitly terminated, or it will not be printed.
f4 g a b \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "2")) g4 a g a \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f)) c1
Multiple repeat commands may occur at the same point:
f4 g a b \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "2, 5") end-repeat) g4 a g a c1 \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f) (volta "95") end-repeat) b1 \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
Text can be included with the volta bracket. The text can be a number or numbers or markup text, see Formatting text. The simplest way to use markup text is to define the markup first, then include the markup in a Scheme list.
voltaAdLib = \markup { 1. 2. 3... \text \italic { ad lib. } } \relative c'' { c1 \set Score.repeatCommands = #(list(list 'volta voltaAdLib) 'start-repeat) c4 b d e \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f) (volta "4.") end-repeat) f1 \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f)) }
Selected Snippets
Printing a repeat sign at the beginning of a piece
A |:
bar line can be printed at the beginning of a piece, by
overriding the relevant property:
\relative c'' { \once \override Score.BreakAlignment #'break-align-orders = #(make-vector 3 '(instrument-name left-edge ambitus span-bar breathing-sign clef key-signature time-signature staff-bar custos span-bar)) \bar "|:" c1 d1 d4 e f g }
See also
Notation Reference: Bar lines, Formatting text.
Snippets: Repeats.
Internals Reference: VoltaBracket, RepeatedMusic, VoltaRepeatedMusic.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Manual repeat marks ] | [ Up : Long repeats ] | [ Short repeats > ] |
Written-out repeats
By using the unfold
command, repeats can be used to simplify
the writing out of repetitious music. The syntax is
\repeat unfold repeatcount musicexpr
where musicexpr is a music expression and repeatcount is the number of times musicexpr is repeated.
c1 \repeat unfold 2 { c4 d e f } c1
Unfold repeats can be made with alternate endings. If there are more repeats than there are alternate endings, the first alternative ending is applied to the earliest endings.
c1 \repeat unfold 2 { g4 f e d } \alternative { { cis2 g' } { cis,2 b } } c1
See also
Snippets: Repeats.
Internals Reference: RepeatedMusic, UnfoldedRepeatedMusic.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Written-out repeats ] | [ Up : Repeats ] | [ Percent repeats > ] |
1.4.2 Short repeats
This section discusses how to input short repeats. Short repeats can take two basic forms: repeats of a single note to two measures, represented by slashes or percent signs; and tremolos.
Percent repeats | ||
Tremolo repeats |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Short repeats ] | [ Up : Short repeats ] | [ Tremolo repeats > ] |
Percent repeats
Repeated short patterns of notes are supported. The music is printed once, and the pattern is replaced with a special sign. Patterns that are shorter than one measure are replaced by slashes, and patterns of one or two measures are replaced by percent-like signs. The syntax is
\repeat percent number musicexpr
where musicexpr is a music expression.
\repeat percent 4 { c4 } \repeat percent 2 { b4 a g f } \repeat percent 2 { c2 es | f4 fis g c | }
Selected Snippets
Percent repeat counter
Measure repeats of more than two repeats can get a counter when the convenient property is switched, as shown in this example:
\relative c'' { \set countPercentRepeats = ##t \repeat percent 4 { c1 } }
Percent repeat count visibility
Percent repeat counters can be shown at regular intervals by setting
the context property repeatCountVisibility
.
\relative c'' { \set countPercentRepeats = ##t \set repeatCountVisibility = #(every-nth-repeat-count-visible 5) \repeat percent 10 { c1 } \break \set repeatCountVisibility = #(every-nth-repeat-count-visible 2) \repeat percent 6 { c1 d1 } }
Isolated percent repeats
Isolated percents can also be printed. This is done by entering a multi-measure rest with a different print function:
\relative c'' { \override MultiMeasureRest #'stencil = #ly:multi-measure-rest::percent \override MultiMeasureRest #'thickness = #0.48 R1 }
See also
Music Glossary: percent repeat, simile.
Snippets: Repeats.
Internals Reference: RepeatSlash, PercentRepeat, DoublePercentRepeat, DoublePercentRepeatCounter, PercentRepeatCounter, PercentRepeatedMusic.
Known issues and warnings
Only three kinds of percent repeats are supported: a single slash representing a single beat (regardless of the duration of the repeated notes); a single slash with dots representing one full measure; and two slashes with dots crossing a bar line representing two full measures. Neither multiple slashes representing single beat repeats consisting of sixteenth or shorter notes, nor two slashes with dots representing single beat repeats consisting of notes of varying durations, are supported.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Percent repeats ] | [ Up : Short repeats ] | [ Simultaneous notes > ] |
Tremolo repeats
Tremolos can take two forms: alternation between two chords or two notes, and rapid repetition of a single note or chord. Tremolos consisting of an alternation are indicated by adding beams between the notes or chords being alternated, while tremolos consisting of the rapid repetition of a single note are indicated by adding beams or slashes to a single note.
To place tremolo marks between notes, use \repeat
with
tremolo style:
\repeat tremolo 8 { c16 d } \repeat tremolo 6 { c16 d } \repeat tremolo 2 { c16 d }
The \repeat tremolo
syntax expects exactly two notes within
the braces, and the number of repetitions must correspond to a
note value that can be expressed with plain or dotted notes. Thus,
\repeat tremolo 7
is valid and produces a double dotted
note, but \repeat tremolo 9
is not.
The duration of the tremolo equals the duration of the
braced expression multiplied by the number of repeats:
\repeat tremolo 8 { c16 d16 }
gives a whole note tremolo,
notated as two whole notes joined by tremolo beams.
There are two ways to put tremolo marks on a single note. The
\repeat tremolo
syntax is also used here, in which case
the note should not be surrounded by braces:
\repeat tremolo 4 c'16
The same output can be obtained by adding
‘:
[number]’ after the note. The number indicates
the duration of the subdivision, and it must be at least 8. A
number value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If
the length is omitted, the last value (stored in
tremoloFlags
) is used
c2:8 c:32 c: c:
See also
Snippets: Repeats.
Known issues and warnings
Cross-staff tremolos do not work well.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Tremolo repeats ] | [ Up : Musical notation ] | [ Single voice > ] |
1.5 Simultaneous notes
Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring in a piece of music. Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more than one voice on the same staff.
1.5.1 Single voice | ||
1.5.2 Multiple voices |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Simultaneous notes ] | [ Up : Simultaneous notes ] | [ Chorded notes > ] |
1.5.1 Single voice
This section discusses simultaneous notes inside the same voice.
Chorded notes | ||
Simultaneous expressions | ||
Clusters |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Single voice ] | [ Up : Single voice ] | [ Simultaneous expressions > ] |
Chorded notes
A chord is formed by enclosing a set of pitches between <
and >
. A chord may be followed by a duration and/or a set
of articulations, just like simple notes:
<c e g>2 <c f a>4-> <e g c>-.
Relative mode can be used for pitches in chords. The octave of each pitch is chosen using the preceding pitch as a reference except in the case of the first pitch in a chord: the reference for the first pitch is the first pitch of the preceding chord.
For more information about chords, see Chord notation.
See also
Music Glossary: chord.
Learning Manual: Combining notes into chords.
Notation Reference: Chord notation.
Snippets: Simultaneous notes.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Chorded notes ] | [ Up : Single voice ] | [ Clusters > ] |
Simultaneous expressions
One or more music expressions enclosed in double angle brackets are taken to be simultaneous. If the first expression begins with a single note or if the whole simultaneous expression appears explicitly within a single voice, the whole expression is placed on a single staff; otherwise the elements of the simultaneous expression are placed on separate staves.
The following examples show simultaneous expressions on one staff:
\new Voice { % explicit single voice << {a4 b g2} {d4 g c,2} >> }
% single first note a << {a4 b g} {d4 g c,} >>
This can be useful if the simultaneous sections have identical rhythms, but attempts to attach notes with different durations to the same stem will cause errors.
The following example shows how simultaneous expressions can generate multiple staves implicitly:
% no single first note << {a4 b g2} {d4 g2 c,4} >>
Here different rhythms cause no problems.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Simultaneous expressions ] | [ Up : Single voice ] | [ Multiple voices > ] |
Clusters
A cluster indicates a continuous range of pitches to be played.
They can be denoted as the envelope of a set of notes. They are
entered by applying the function \makeClusters
to a sequence
of chords, e.g.,
\makeClusters { <g b>2 <c g'> }
Ordinary notes and clusters can be put together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between ordinary notes and clusters.
See also
Music Glossary: cluster.
Snippets: Simultaneous notes.
Internals Reference: ClusterSpanner, ClusterSpannerBeacon, Cluster_spanner_engraver.
Known issues and warnings
Clusters look good only if they span at least two chords; otherwise they appear too narrow.
Clusters do not have a stem and cannot indicate durations by themselves, but the length of the printed cluster is determined by the durations of the defining chords. Separate clusters need a separating rest between them.
Clusters do not produce MIDI output.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Clusters ] | [ Up : Simultaneous notes ] | [ Single-staff polyphony > ] |
1.5.2 Multiple voices
This section discusses simultaneous notes in multiple voices or multiple staves.
Single-staff polyphony | ||
Voice styles | ||
Collision resolution | ||
Automatic part combining | ||
Writing music in parallel |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Multiple voices ] | [ Up : Multiple voices ] | [ Voice styles > ] |
Single-staff polyphony
Explicitly instantiating voices
The basic structure needed to achieve multiple independent voices in a single staff is illustrated in the following example:
\new Staff << \new Voice = "first" { \voiceOne r8 r16 g e8. f16 g8[ c,] f e16 d } \new Voice= "second" { \voiceTwo d16 c d8~ d16 b c8~ c16 b c8~ c16 b8. } >>
Here, voices are instantiated explicitly and are given names. The
\voiceOne
... \voiceFour
commands set up the voices
so that first and third voices get stems up, second and fourth
voices get stems down, third and fourth voice note heads are
horizontally shifted, and rests in the respective voices are
automatically moved to avoid collisions. The \oneVoice
command returns all the voice settings to the neutral default
directions.
Temporary polyphonic passages
A temporary polyphonic passage can be created with the following construct:
<< { \voiceOne ... } \new Voice { \voiceTwo ... } >> \oneVoice
Here, the first expression within a temporary polyphonic passage is
placed into the Voice
context which was in use immediately
before the polyphonic passage, and that same Voice
context
continues after the temporary section. Other expressions within
the angle brackets are assigned to distinct temporary voices.
This allows lyrics to be assigned to one continuing voice before,
during and after a polyphonic section:
<< \new Voice = "melody" { a4 << { \voiceOne g f } \new Voice { \voiceTwo d2 } >> \oneVoice e4 } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" { This is my song. } >>
Here, the \voiceOne
and \voiceTwo
commands are
required to define the settings of each voice.
The double backslash construct
The << {...} \\ {...} >>
construct, where the two (or
more) expressions are separated by double backslashes, behaves
differently to the similar construct without the double backslashes:
all the expressions within this contruct are assigned
to new Voice
contexts. These new Voice
contexts
are created implicitly and are given the fixed names "1"
,
"2"
, etc.
The first example could be typeset as follows:
<< { r8 r16 g e8. f16 g8[ c,] f e16 d } \\ { d16 c d8~ d16 b c8~ c16 b c8~ c16 b8. } >>
This syntax can be used where it does not matter that temporary
voices are created and then discarded. These implicitly created
voices are given the settings equivalent to the effect of the
\voiceOne
... \voiceFour
commands, in the order in
which they appear in the code.
In the following example, the intermediate voice has stems up, therefore we enter it in the third place, so it becomes voice three, which has the stems up as desired. Spacer rests are used to avoid printing doubled rests.
<< { r8 g g g g f16 ees f8 d } \\ { ees,8 r ees r d r d r } \\ { d'8 s c s bes s a s } >>
In all but the simplest works it is advisable to create explicit
Voice
contexts as explained in
Contexts and engravers and
Explicitly instantiating voices.
Identical rhythms
In the special case that we want to typeset parallel pieces of music
that have the same rhythm, we can combine them into a single
Voice
context, thus forming chords. To achieve this, enclose
them in a simple simultaneous music construct within an explicit voice:
\new Voice << { e4 f8 d e16 f g8 d4 } { c4 d8 b c16 d e8 b4 } >>
This method leads to strange beamings and warnings if the pieces of music do not have the same rhythm.
Predefined commands
\voiceOne
,
\voiceTwo
,
\voiceThree
,
\voiceFour
,
\oneVoice
.
See also
Learning Manual: Voices contain music, Explicitly instantiating voices.
Notation Reference: Percussion staves, Invisible rests.
Snippets: Simultaneous notes.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Single-staff polyphony ] | [ Up : Multiple voices ] | [ Collision resolution > ] |
Voice styles
Voices may be given distinct colors and shapes, allowing them to be easily identified:
<< { \voiceOneStyle d4 c2 b4 } \\ { \voiceTwoStyle e,2 e } \\ { \voiceThreeStyle b2. c4 } \\ { \voiceFourStyle g'2 g } >>
The \voiceNeutralstyle
command is used to revert to the
standard presentation.
Predefined commands
\voiceOneStyle
,
\voiceTwoStyle
,
\voiceThreeStyle
,
\voiceFourStyle
,
\voiceNeutralStyle
.
See also
Learning Manual: I'm hearing Voices, Other sources of information.
Snippets: Simultaneous notes.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Voice styles ] | [ Up : Multiple voices ] | [ Automatic part combining > ] |
Collision resolution
The note heads of notes in different voices with the same pitch, same note head and opposite stem direction are automatically merged, but notes with different note heads or the same stem direction are not. Rests opposite a stem in a different voice are shifted vertically.
<< { c8 d e d c d c4 g'2 fis } \\ { c2 c8. b16 c4 e,2 r } \\ { \oneVoice s1 e8 a b c d2 } >>
Notes with different note heads may be merged, with the exception of half-note heads and quarter-note heads:
<< { \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn c8 d e d c d c4 g'2 fis } \\ { c2 c8. b16 c4 e,2 r } \\ { \oneVoice s1 e8 a b c d2 } >>
Note heads with different dots may be merged:
<< { \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn \mergeDifferentlyDottedOn c8 d e d c d c4 g'2 fis } \\ { c2 c8. b16 c4 e,2 r } \\ { \oneVoice s1 e8 a b c d2 } >>
The half note and eighth note at the start of the second measure
are incorrectly merged because \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
cannot successfully complete the merge when three or more notes
line up in the same column, and in this case a warning is given.
To allow the merge to work properly a \shift
must be applied
to the note that should not be merged. Here, \shiftOn
is
applied to move the top g out of the column, and
\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
then works properly.
<< { \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn \mergeDifferentlyDottedOn c8 d e d c d c4 \shiftOn g'2 fis } \\ { c2 c8. b16 c4 e,2 r } \\ { \oneVoice s1 e8 a b c d2 } >>
The \shiftOn
, \shiftOnn
, and \shiftOnnn
commands specify the degree to which chords of the current voice
should be shifted. The outer voices (normally: voices one and
two) have \shiftOff
, while the inner voices (three and
four) have \shiftOn
. \shiftOnn
and
\shiftOnnn
define further shift levels.
Notes are only merged if they have opposing stem directions (e.g. in
Voice
1 and 2).
Predefined commands
\mergeDifferentlyDottedOn
,
\mergeDifferentlyDottedOff
,
\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
,
\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff
.
\shiftOn
,
\shiftOnn
,
\shiftOnnn
,
\shiftOff
.
Selected Snippets
Additional voices to avoid collisions
In some instances of complex polyphonic music, additional voices are
necessary to prevent collisions between notes. If more than four
parallel voices are needed, additional voices can be added by defining
a variable using the Scheme function context-spec-music
.
voiceFive = #(context-spec-music (make-voice-props-set 4) 'Voice) \relative c'' { \time 3/4 \key d \minor \partial 2 << { \voiceOne a4. a8 e'4 e4. e8 f4 d4. c8 } \\ { \voiceThree f,2 bes4 a2 a4 s2 } \\ { \voiceFive s2 g4 g2 f4 f2 } \\ { \voiceTwo d2 d4 cis2 d4 bes2 } >> }
Forcing horizontal shift of notes
When the typesetting engine cannot cope, the following syntax can be used to override typesetting decisions. The units of measure used here are staff spaces.
\relative c' << { <d g>2 <d g> } \\ { <b f'>2 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #1.7 <b f'>2 } >>
See also
Music Glossary: polyphony.
Learning Manual: Multiple notes at once, Voices contain music, Collisions of objects.
Snippets: Simultaneous notes.
Internals Reference: NoteColumn, NoteCollision, RestCollision.
Known issues and warnings
When using \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
with an upstem eighth
or a shorter note, and a downstem half note, the eighth note stem
gets a slightly wrong offset because of the different width of the
half note head symbol.
There is no support for chords where the same note occurs with different accidentals in the same chord. In this case, it is recommended to use enharmonic transcription, or to use special cluster notation (see Clusters).
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Collision resolution ] | [ Up : Multiple voices ] | [ Writing music in parallel > ] |
Automatic part combining
Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and a due parts are identified and marked by default.
The syntax for part combining is:
\partcombine musicexpr1 musicexpr2
The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part combiner: putting parts on one staff and setting stem directions and polyphony. The same variables are used for the independent parts and the combined staff.
instrumentOne = \relative c' { c4 d e f R1 d'4 c b a b4 g2 f4 e1 } instrumentTwo = \relative g' { R1 g4 a b c d c b a g f( e) d e1 } << \new Staff \instrumentOne \new Staff \instrumentTwo \new Staff \partcombine \instrumentOne \instrumentTwo >>
The notes in the third measure appear only once, although they were
specified in both parts. Stem, slur, and tie directions are set
automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unison. When
needed in polyphony situations, the first part (with context called
one
) always gets up stems, while the second (called two
)
always gets down stems. In solo situations, the first and second
parts get marked with ‘Solo’ and ‘Solo II’, respectively. The
unisono (a due) parts are marked by default with the text
“a2”.
Both arguments to \partcombine
will be interpreted as
Voice
contexts. If using relative octaves,
\relative
should be specified for both music expressions,
i.e.,
\partcombine \relative … musicexpr1 \relative … musicexpr2
A \relative
section that is outside of \partcombine
has no effect on the pitches of musicexpr1 and
musicexpr2.
Selected Snippets
Combining two parts on the same staff
The part combiner tool ( \partcombine
command ) allows the
combination of several different parts on the same staff. Text
directions such as "solo" or "a2" are added by default; to remove
them, simply set the property printPartCombineTexts
to
"false". For vocal scores (hymns), there is no need to add
"solo"/"a2" texts, so they should be switched off. However, it
might be better not to use it if there are any solos, as they won’t be
indicated. In such cases, standard polyphonic notation may be
preferable.
This snippet presents the three ways two parts can be printed on a same
staff: standard polyphony, \partcombine
without texts, and
\partcombine
with texts.
musicUp = \relative c'' { \time 4/4 a4 c4.( g8) a4 | g4 e' g,( a8 b) | c b a2. } musicDown = \relative c'' { g4 e4.( d8) c4 | r2 g'4( f8 e) | d2 \stemDown a } \score { << << \new Staff { \set Staff.instrumentName = "Standard polyphony " << \musicUp \\ \musicDown >> } \new Staff \with { printPartCombineTexts = ##f } { \set Staff.instrumentName = "PartCombine without texts " \partcombine \musicUp \musicDown } \new Staff { \set Staff.instrumentName = "PartCombine with texts " \partcombine \musicUp \musicDown } >> >> \layout { indent = 6.0\cm \context { \Score \override SystemStartBar #'collapse-height = #30 } } }
Changing partcombine texts
When using the automatic part combining feature, the printed text for the solo and unison sections may be changed:
\new Staff << \set Staff.soloText = #"girl" \set Staff.soloIIText = #"boy" \set Staff.aDueText = #"together" \partcombine \relative c'' { g4 g r r a2 g } \relative c'' { r4 r a( b) a2 g } >>
See also
Notation Reference: Writing parts.
Snippets: Simultaneous notes.
Internals Reference: PartCombineMusic, Voice.
Known issues and warnings
\partcombine
can only accept two voices.
When printPartCombineTexts
is set, if the two voices play
the same notes on and off, the part combiner may typeset a2
more than once in a measure.
\partcombine
cannot be inside \times
.
\partcombine
cannot be inside \relative
.
Internally, the \partcombine
interprets both arguments as
Voice
s and decides when the parts can be combined. When they have
different durations they cannot be combined and are given the names
one
and two
. Consequently, if the arguments switch to
differently named
Voice contexts, the events in those will
be ignored. Likewise, partcombining isn’t designed to work with lyrics;
when one of the voices is explicitly named in order to attach lyrics to
it, the partcombining stops working.
\partcombine
only observes onset times of notes. It cannot
determine whether a previously started note is playing or not, leading
to various problems.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Automatic part combining ] | [ Up : Multiple voices ] | [ Staff notation > ] |
Writing music in parallel
Music for multiple parts can be interleaved in input code. The
function \parallelMusic
accepts a list with the names of a
number of variables to be created, and a musical expression. The
content of alternate measures from the expression become the value
of the respective variables, so you can use them afterwards to
print the music.
Note: Bar checks |
\parallelMusic #'(voiceA voiceB voiceC) { % Bar 1 r8 g'16 c'' e'' g' c'' e'' r8 g'16 c'' e'' g' c'' e'' | r16 e'8.~ e'4 r16 e'8.~ e'4 | c'2 c'2 | % Bar 2 r8 a'16 d'' f'' a' d'' f'' r8 a'16 d'' f'' a' d'' f'' | r16 d'8.~ d'4 r16 d'8.~ d'4 | c'2 c'2 | } \new StaffGroup << \new Staff << \voiceA \\ \voiceB >> \new Staff { \clef bass \voiceC } >>
Relative mode may be used. Note that the \relative
command
is not used inside \parallelMusic
itself. The notes are
relative to the preceding note in the voice, not to the previous
note in the input – in other words, relative notes for
voiceA
ignore the notes in voiceB
.
\parallelMusic #'(voiceA voiceB voiceC) { % Bar 1 r8 g16 c e g, c e r8 g,16 c e g, c e | r16 e8.~ e4 r16 e8.~ e4 | c2 c | % Bar 2 r8 a,16 d f a, d f r8 a,16 d f a, d f | r16 d8.~ d4 r16 d8.~ d4 | c2 c | } \new StaffGroup << \new Staff << \relative c'' \voiceA \\ \relative c' \voiceB >> \new Staff \relative c' { \clef bass \voiceC } >>
This works quite well for piano music. This example maps four consecutive measures to four variables:
global = { \key g \major \time 2/4 } \parallelMusic #'(voiceA voiceB voiceC voiceD) { % Bar 1 a8 b c d | d4 e | c16 d e fis d e fis g | a4 a | % Bar 2 e8 fis g a | fis4 g | e16 fis g a fis g a b | a4 a | % Bar 3 ... } \score { \new PianoStaff << \new Staff { \global << \relative c'' \voiceA \\ \relative c' \voiceB >> } \new Staff { \global \clef bass << \relative c \voiceC \\ \relative c \voiceD >> } >> }
See also
Learning Manual: Organizing pieces with variables.
Snippets: Simultaneous notes.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Writing music in parallel ] | [ Up : Musical notation ] | [ Displaying staves > ] |
1.6 Staff notation
This section explains how to influence the appearance of staves, how to print scores with more than one staff, and how to add tempo indications and cue notes to staves.
1.6.1 Displaying staves | ||
1.6.2 Modifying single staves | ||
1.6.3 Writing parts |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Staff notation ] | [ Up : Staff notation ] | [ Instantiating new staves > ] |
1.6.1 Displaying staves
This section describes the different methods of creating and grouping staves.
Instantiating new staves | ||
Grouping staves | ||
Nested staff groups |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Displaying staves ] | [ Up : Displaying staves ] | [ Grouping staves > ] |
Instantiating new staves
Staves (singular: staff) are created with
the \new
or \context
commands. For details, see
Creating contexts.
The basic staff context is Staff
:
\new Staff { c4 d e f }
The DrumStaff
context creates a five-line staff set up for
a typical drum set. Each instrument is shown with a different
symbol. The instruments are entered in drum mode following a
\drummode
command, with each instrument specified by name.
For details, see Percussion staves.
\new DrumStaff { \drummode { cymc hh ss tomh } }
RhythmicStaff
creates a single-line staff that only
displays the rhythmic values of the input. Real durations are
preserved. For details, see Showing melody rhythms.
\new RhythmicStaff { c4 d e f }
TabStaff
creates a tablature with six strings in standard
guitar tuning. For details, see Default tablatures.
\new TabStaff { c4 d e f }
There are two staff contexts specific for the notation of ancient
music: MensuralStaff
and VaticanaStaff
. They are
described in Pre-defined contexts.
The GregorianTranscriptionStaff
context creates a staff to
notate modern Gregorian chant. It does not show bar lines.
\new GregorianTranscriptionStaff { c4 d e f e d }
New single staff contexts may be defined. For details, see Defining new contexts.
See also
Music Glossary: staff, staves.
Notation Reference: Creating contexts, Percussion staves, Showing melody rhythms, Default tablatures, Pre-defined contexts, Staff symbol, Gregorian chant contexts, Mensural contexts, Defining new contexts.
Snippets: Staff notation.
Internals Reference: Staff, DrumStaff, GregorianTranscriptionStaff, RhythmicStaff, TabStaff, MensuralStaff, VaticanaStaff, StaffSymbol.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Instantiating new staves ] | [ Up : Displaying staves ] | [ Nested staff groups > ] |
Grouping staves
Various contexts exist to group single staves together in order to form multi-stave systems. Each grouping context sets the style of the system start delimiter and the behavior of bar lines.
If no context is specified, the default properties will be used: the group is started with a vertical line, and the bar lines are not connected.
<< \new Staff { c1 c } \new Staff { c1 c } >>
In the StaffGroup
context, the group is started with a
bracket and bar lines are drawn through all the staves.
\new StaffGroup << \new Staff { c1 c } \new Staff { c1 c } >>
In a ChoirStaff
, the group starts with a bracket, but bar
lines are not connected.
\new ChoirStaff << \new Staff { c1 c } \new Staff { c1 c } >>
In a GrandStaff
, the group begins with a brace, and bar
lines are connected between the staves.
\new GrandStaff << \new Staff { c1 c } \new Staff { c1 c } >>
The PianoStaff
is identical to a GrandStaff
, except
that it supports printing the instrument name directly. For
details, see Instrument names.
\new PianoStaff << \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano" \new Staff { c1 c } \new Staff { c1 c } >>
Each staff group context sets the property
systemStartDelimiter
to one of the following values:
SystemStartBar
, SystemStartBrace
, or
SystemStartBracket
. A fourth delimiter,
SystemStartSquare
, is also available, but it must be
explicitly specified.
New staff group contexts may be defined. For details, see Defining new contexts.
Selected Snippets
Use square bracket at the start of a staff group
The system start delimiter SystemStartSquare
can be used by
setting it explicitly in a StaffGroup
or ChoirStaffGroup
context.
\score { \new StaffGroup { << \set StaffGroup.systemStartDelimiter = #'SystemStartSquare \new Staff { c'4 d' e' f' } \new Staff { c'4 d' e' f' } >> } }
Display bracket with only one staff in a system
If there is only one staff in one of the staff types
ChoirStaff
or StaffGroup
, the bracket and the starting
bar line will not be displayed as standard behavior. This can be changed
by overriding the relevant properties.
Note that in contexts such as PianoStaff
and GrandStaff
where the systems begin with a brace instead of a bracket, another
property has to be set, as shown on the second system in the example.
\markup \left-column { \score { \new StaffGroup << % Must be lower than the actual number of staff lines \override StaffGroup.SystemStartBracket #'collapse-height = #1 \override Score.SystemStartBar #'collapse-height = #1 \new Staff { c'1 } >> \layout { } } \score { \new PianoStaff << \override PianoStaff.SystemStartBrace #'collapse-height = #1 \override Score.SystemStartBar #'collapse-height = #1 \new Staff { c'1 } >> \layout { } } }
Mensurstriche layout (bar lines between the staves)
The mensurstriche-layout where the bar lines do not show on the staves
but between staves can be achieved with a StaffGroup
instead of
a ChoirStaff
. The bar line on staves is blanked out by setting
the transparent
property.
global = { \override Staff.BarLine #'transparent = ##t s1 s % the final bar line is not interrupted \revert Staff.BarLine #'transparent \bar "|." } \new StaffGroup \relative c'' { << \new Staff { << \global { c1 c } >> } \new Staff { << \global { c c } >> } >> }
See also
Music Glossary: brace, bracket, grand staff.
Notation Reference: Instrument names, Defining new contexts.
Snippets: Staff notation.
Internals Reference: Staff, StaffGroup, ChoirStaff, GrandStaff, PianoStaff, SystemStartBar, SystemStartBrace, SystemStartBracket, SystemStartSquare.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Grouping staves ] | [ Up : Displaying staves ] | [ Modifying single staves > ] |
Nested staff groups
Staff-group contexts can be nested to arbitrary depths. In this case, each child context creates a new bracket adjacent to the bracket of its parent group.
\new StaffGroup << \new Staff { c2 c | c2 c } \new StaffGroup << \new Staff { g2 g | g2 g } \new StaffGroup \with { systemStartDelimiter = #'SystemStartSquare } << \new Staff { e2 e | e2 e } \new Staff { c2 c | c2 c } >> >> >>
New nested staff group contexts can be defined. For details, see Defining new contexts.
Selected Snippets
Nesting staves
The property systemStartDelimiterHierarchy
can be used to make
more complex nested staff groups. The command \set
StaffGroup.systemStartDelimiterHierarchy
takes an alphabetical list of
the number of staves produced. Before each staff a system start
delimiter can be given. It has to be enclosed in brackets and takes as
much staves as the brackets enclose. Elements in the list can be
omitted, but the first bracket takes always the complete number of
staves. The possibilities are SystemStartBar
,
SystemStartBracket
, SystemStartBrace
, and
SystemStartSquare
.
\new StaffGroup \relative c'' << \set StaffGroup.systemStartDelimiterHierarchy = #'(SystemStartSquare (SystemStartBrace (SystemStartBracket a (SystemStartSquare b) ) c ) d) \new Staff { c1 } \new Staff { c1 } \new Staff { c1 } \new Staff { c1 } \new Staff { c1 } >>
See also
Notation Reference: Grouping staves, Instrument names, Defining new contexts.
Snippets: Staff notation.
Internals Reference: StaffGroup, ChoirStaff, SystemStartBar, SystemStartBrace, SystemStartBracket, SystemStartSquare.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Nested staff groups ] | [ Up : Staff notation ] | [ Staff symbol > ] |
1.6.2 Modifying single staves
This section explains how to change specific attributes of one staff: for example, modifying the number of staff lines or the staff size. Methods to start and stop staves and set ossia sections are also described.
Staff symbol | ||
Ossia staves | ||
Hiding staves |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Modifying single staves ] | [ Up : Modifying single staves ] | [ Ossia staves > ] |
Staff symbol
The lines of a staff belong to the StaffSymbol
grob.
StaffSymbol
properties can be modified to change the
appearance of a staff, but they must be modified before the staff
is created.
The number of staff lines may be changed. The clef position and the position of middle C may need to be modified to fit the new staff. For an explanation, refer to the snippet section in Clef.
\new Staff \with { \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #3 } { d4 d d d }
Staff line thickness can be modified. The thickness of ledger lines and stems are also affected, since they depend on staff line thickness.
\new Staff \with { \override StaffSymbol #'thickness = #3 } { e4 d c b }
Ledger line thickness can be set independently of staff line thickness. In the example the two numbers are factors multiplying the staff line thickness and the staff line spacing. The two contributions are added to give the ledger line thickness.
\new Staff \with { \override StaffSymbol #'ledger-line-thickness = #'(1 . 0.2) } { e4 d c b }
The distance between staff lines can be changed. This setting affects the spacing of ledger lines as well.
\new Staff \with { \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #1.5 } { a4 b c d }
Further details about the properties of StaffSymbol
can be
found in
staff-symbol-interface.
Modifications to staff properties in the middle of a score can be
placed between \stopStaff
and \startStaff
:
c2 c \stopStaff \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2 \startStaff b2 b \stopStaff \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count \startStaff a2 a
In general, \startStaff
and \stopStaff
can be used
to stop or start a staff in the middle of a score.
c4 b a2 \stopStaff b4 c d2 \startStaff e4 d c2
Predefined commands
\startStaff
,
\stopStaff
.
Selected Snippets
Making some staff lines thicker than the others
For pedagogical purposes, a staff line can be thickened (e.g., the
middle line, or to emphasize the line of the G clef). This can be
achieved by adding extra lines very close to the line that should be
emphasized, using the line-positions
property of the
StaffSymbol
object.
{ \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-positions = #'(-4 -2 -0.2 0 0.2 2 4) d'4 e' f' g' }
See also
Music Glossary: line, ledger line, staff.
Notation Reference: Clef.
Snippets: Staff notation.
Internals Reference: StaffSymbol, staff-symbol-interface.
Known issues and warnings
When setting vertical staff line positions manually, bar lines are always centered on position 0, so the maximum distance between the outermost bar lines in either direction must be equal.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Staff symbol ] | [ Up : Modifying single staves ] | [ Hiding staves > ] |
Ossia staves
Ossia staves can be set by creating a new simultaneous staff in the appropriate location:
\new Staff \relative c'' { c4 b d c << { c4 b d c } \new Staff { e4 d f e } >> c4 b c2 }
However, the above example is not what is usually desired. To create ossia staves that are above the original staff, have no time signature or clef, and have a smaller font size, tweaks must be used. The Learning Manual describes a specific technique to achieve this goal, beginning with Nesting music expressions.
The following example uses the alignAboveContext
property
to align the ossia staff. This method is most appropriate when
only a few ossia staves are needed.
\new Staff = main \relative c'' { c4 b d c << { c4 b d c } \new Staff \with { \remove "Time_signature_engraver" alignAboveContext = #"main" fontSize = #-3 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #(magstep -3) \override StaffSymbol #'thickness = #(magstep -3) firstClef = ##f } { e4 d f e } >> c4 b c2 }
If many isolated ossia staves are needed, creating an empty
Staff
context with a specific context id may be more
appropriate; the ossia staves may then be created by
calling this context and using \startStaff
and
\stopStaff
at the desired locations. The benefits of this
method are more apparent if the piece is longer than the following
example.
<< \new Staff = ossia \with { \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \override Clef #'transparent = ##t fontSize = #-3 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #(magstep -3) \override StaffSymbol #'thickness = #(magstep -3) } { \stopStaff s1*6 } \new Staff \relative c' { c4 b c2 << { e4 f e2 } \context Staff = ossia { \startStaff e4 g8 f e2 \stopStaff } >> g4 a g2 \break c4 b c2 << { g4 a g2 } \context Staff = ossia { \startStaff g4 e8 f g2 \stopStaff } >> e4 d c2 } >>
Using the \RemoveEmptyStaffContext
command to create ossia
staves may be used as an alternative. This method is most
convenient when ossia staves occur immediately following a line
break. In this case, spacer rests do not need to be used at all;
only \startStaff
and \stopStaff
are necessary. For
more information about \RemoveEmptyStaffContext
, see
Hiding staves.
<< \new Staff = ossia \with { \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \override Clef #'transparent = ##t fontSize = #-3 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #(magstep -3) \override StaffSymbol #'thickness = #(magstep -3) } \new Staff \relative c' { c4 b c2 e4 f e2 g4 a g2 \break << { c4 b c2 } \context Staff = ossia { c4 e8 d c2 \stopStaff } >> g4 a g2 e4 d c2 } >> \layout { \context { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext \override VerticalAxisGroup #'remove-first = ##t } }
Selected Snippets
Vertically aligning ossias and lyrics
This snippet demonstrates the use of the context properties
alignBelowContext
and alignAboveContext
to control the
positioning of lyrics and ossias.
\paper { ragged-right = ##t } \relative c' << \new Staff = "1" { c4 c s2 } \new Staff = "2" { c4 c s2 } \new Staff = "3" { c4 c s2 } { \skip 2 << \lyrics { \set alignBelowContext = #"1" lyrics4 below } \new Staff \with { alignAboveContext = #"3" fontSize = #-2 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #(magstep -2) \remove "Time_signature_engraver" } { \times 4/6 { \override TextScript #'padding = #3 c8[^"ossia above" d e d e f] } } >> } >>
See also
Music Glossary: ossia, staff, Frenched staff.
Learning Manual: Nesting music expressions, Size of objects, Length and thickness of objects.
Notation Reference: Hiding staves.
Snippets: Staff notation.
Internals Reference: StaffSymbol.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Ossia staves ] | [ Up : Modifying single staves ] | [ Writing parts > ] |
Hiding staves
Staff lines can be hidden by removing the
Staff_symbol_engraver
from the Staff
context. As an
alternative, \stopStaff
may be used.
\new Staff \with { \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver" } \relative c''' { a8 f e16 d c b a2 }
Empty staves can be hidden by setting the
\RemoveEmptyStaffContext
command in the \layout
block. In orchestral scores, this style is known as ‘Frenched
Score’. By default, this command hides and removes all empty
staves in a score except for those in the first system.
Note: A staff is considered empty when it contains only multi-measure rests, skips, spacer rests, or a combination of these elements. |
\layout { \context { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext } } \relative c' << \new Staff { e4 f g a \break b1 \break a4 b c2 } \new Staff { c,4 d e f \break R1 \break f4 g c,2 } >>
\RemoveEmptyStaffContext
can also be used to create ossia
sections for a staff. For details, see Ossia staves.
The \AncientRemoveEmptyStaffContext
command may be used to
hide empty staves in ancient music contexts. Similarly,
\RemoveEmptyRhythmicStaffContext
may be used to hide empty
RhythmicStaff
contexts.
Predefined commands
\RemoveEmptyStaffContext
,
\AncientRemoveEmptyStaffContext
,
\RemoveEmptyRhythmicStaffContext
.
Selected Snippets
Removing the first empty line
The first empty staff can also be removed from the score by setting the
VerticalAxisGroup
property remove-first
. This can be done
globally inside the \layout
block, or locally inside the
specific staff that should be removed. In the latter case, you have to
specify the context (Staff
applies only to the current staff) in
front of the property.
The lower staff of the second staff group is not removed, because the setting applies only to the specific staff inside of which it is written.
\layout { \context { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext % To use the setting globally, uncomment the following line: % \override VerticalAxisGroup #'remove-first = ##t } } \new StaffGroup << \new Staff \relative c' { e4 f g a \break c1 } \new Staff { % To use the setting globally, comment this line, % uncomment the line in the \layout block above \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'remove-first = ##t R1 \break R } >> \new StaffGroup << \new Staff \relative c' { e4 f g a \break c1 } \new Staff { R1 \break R } >>
See also
Music Glossary: Frenched staff.
Notation Reference: Staff symbol, Ossia staves.
Snippets: Staff notation.
Internals Reference: ChordNames, FiguredBass, Lyrics, Staff, VerticalAxisGroup, Staff_symbol_engraver.
Known issues and warnings
Removing Staff_symbol_engraver
also hides bar lines. If
bar line visibility is forced, formatting errors may occur. In
this case, use the following overrides instead of removing the
engraver:
\override StaffSymbol #'stencil = ##f \override NoteHead #'no-ledgers = ##t
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Hiding staves ] | [ Up : Staff notation ] | [ Metronome marks > ] |
1.6.3 Writing parts
This section explains how to insert tempo indications and instrument names into a score. Methods to quote other voices and format cue notes are also described.
Metronome marks | ||
Instrument names | ||
Quoting other voices | ||
Formatting cue notes |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Writing parts ] | [ Up : Writing parts ] | [ Instrument names > ] |
Metronome marks
A basic metronome mark is simple to write:
\tempo 4 = 120 c2 d e4. d8 c2
Tempo indications with text can be used instead:
\tempo "Allegretto" c4 e d c b4. a16 b c4 r4
Combining a metronome mark and text will automatically place the metronome mark within parentheses:
\tempo "Allegro" 4 = 160 g4 c d e d4 b g2
In general, the text can be any markup object:
\tempo \markup { \italic Faster } 4 = 132 a8-. r8 b-. r gis-. r a-. r
A parenthesized metronome mark with no textual indication may be written by including an empty string in the input:
\tempo "" 8 = 96 d4 g e c
Selected Snippets
Printing metronome and rehearsal marks below the staff
By default, metronome and rehearsal marks are printed above the staff.
To place them below the staff simply set the direction
property
of MetronomeMark
or RehearsalMark
appropriately.
\layout { ragged-right = ##f } { % Metronome marks below the staff \override Score.MetronomeMark #'direction = #DOWN \tempo 8. = 120 c''1 % Rehearsal marks below the staff \override Score.RehearsalMark #'direction = #DOWN \mark \default c''1 }
Changing the tempo without a metronome mark To change the tempo in MIDI output without printing anything, make the metronome mark invisible:
\score { \new Staff \relative c' { \tempo 4 = 160 c4 e g b c4 b d c \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 96 d,4 fis a cis d4 cis e d } \layout { } \midi { } }
Creating metronome marks in markup mode New metronome marks can be created in markup mode, but they will not change the tempo in MIDI output.
\relative c' { \tempo \markup { \concat { ( \smaller \general-align #Y #DOWN \note #"16." #1 " = " \smaller \general-align #Y #DOWN \note #"8" #1 ) } } c1 c4 c' c,2 }
For more details, see Formatting text.
See also
Music Glossary: metronome, metronomic indication, tempo indication, metronome mark.
Notation Reference: Formatting text, MIDI output.
Snippets: Staff notation.
Internals Reference: MetronomeMark.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Metronome marks ] | [ Up : Writing parts ] | [ Quoting other voices > ] |
Instrument names
Instrument names can be printed on the left side of staves in the
Staff
and PianoStaff
contexts. The value of
instrumentName
is used for the first staff, and the value
of shortInstrumentName
is used for all succeeding staves.
\set Staff.instrumentName = #"Violin " \set Staff.shortInstrumentName = #"Vln " c4.. g'16 c4.. g'16 \break c1
Markup mode can be used to create more complicated instrument names:
\set Staff.instrumentName = \markup { \column { "Clarinetti" \line { "in B" \smaller \flat } } } c4 c,16 d e f g2
When two or more staff contexts are grouped together, the
instrument names and short instrument names are centered by
default. To center multi-line instrument names,
\center-column
must be used:
<< \new Staff { \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Flute" f2 g4 f } \new Staff { \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup \center-column { Clarinet \line { "in B" \smaller \flat } } c4 b c2 } >>
However, if the instrument names are longer, the instrument names
in a staff group may not be centered unless the indent
and
short-indent
settings are increased. For details about
these settings, see Horizontal dimensions.
\layout { indent = 3.0\cm short-indent = 1.5\cm } \relative c'' << \new Staff { \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto Flute in G" \set Staff.shortInstrumentName = #"Fl." f2 g4 f \break g4 f g2 } \new Staff { \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Clarinet" \set Staff.shortInstrumentName = #"Clar." c,4 b c2 \break c2 b4 c } >>
To add instrument names to other contexts (such as
GrandStaff
, ChoirStaff
, or StaffGroup
),
Instrument_name_engraver
must be added to that context.
For details, see Modifying context plug-ins.
Instrument names may be changed in the middle of a piece:
\set Staff.instrumentName = #"First" \set Staff.shortInstrumentName = #"one" c1 c c c \break c1 c c c \break \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Second" \set Staff.shortInstrumentName = #"two" c1 c c c \break c1 c c c \break
If an instrument switch is needed,
\addInstrumentDefinition
may be used in combination with
\instrumentSwitch
to create a detailed list of the
necessary changes for the switch. The
\addInstrumentDefinition
command has two arguments: an
identifying string, and an association list of context properties
and values to be used for the instrument. It must be placed in
the toplevel scope. \instrumentSwitch
is used in the music
expression to declare the instrument switch:
\addInstrumentDefinition #"contrabassoon" #`((instrumentTransposition . ,(ly:make-pitch -1 0 0)) (shortInstrumentName . "Cbsn.") (clefGlyph . "clefs.F") (middleCPosition . 6) (clefPosition . 2) (instrumentCueName . ,(make-bold-markup "cbsn.")) (midiInstrument . "bassoon")) \new Staff \with { instrumentName = #"Bassoon" } \relative c' { \clef tenor \compressFullBarRests c2 g' R1*16 \instrumentSwitch "contrabassoon" c,,2 g \break c,1 ~ | c1 }
See also
Notation Reference: Horizontal dimensions, Modifying context plug-ins.
Snippets: Staff notation.
Internals Reference: InstrumentName, PianoStaff, Staff.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Instrument names ] | [ Up : Writing parts ] | [ Formatting cue notes > ] |
Quoting other voices
It is very common for one voice to double some of the music from another voice. For example, the first and second violins may play the same notes during a passage of music. In LilyPond this is accomplished by letting one voice quote the other voice without having to re-enter it.
Before a part can be quoted, the \addQuote
command must be used
to initialize the quoted fragment. This command must be used in the
toplevel scope. The first argument is an identifying string, and the
second is a music expression:
flute = \relative c'' { a4 gis g gis } \addQuote "flute" { \flute }
The \quoteDuring
command is used to indicate the point where the
quotation begins. It is followed by two arguments: the name of the
quoted voice, as defined with \addQuote
, and a music expression
that indicates the duration of the quote, usually spacer rests or
multi-measure rests. The corresponding music from the quoted voice is
inserted into the music expression:
flute = \relative c'' { a4 gis g gis } \addQuote "flute" { \flute } \relative c' { c4 cis \quoteDuring #"flute" { s2 } }
If the music expression used for \quoteDuring
contains
anything but a spacer rest or multi-measure rest, a polyphonic
situation is created, which is often not desirable:
flute = \relative c'' { a4 gis g gis } \addQuote "flute" { \flute } \relative c' { c4 cis \quoteDuring #"flute" { c4 b } }
Quotations recognize instrument transposition settings for both
the source and target instruments if the \transposition
command is used. For details about \transposition
, see
Instrument transpositions.
clarinet = \relative c'' { \transposition bes a4 gis g gis } \addQuote "clarinet" { \clarinet } \relative c' { c4 cis \quoteDuring #"clarinet" { s2 } }
It is possible to tag quotations with unique names in order to process them in different ways. For details about this procedure, see Using tags.
Selected Snippets
Quoting another voice with transposition
Quotations take into account the transposition of both
source and target. In this example, all instruments play sounding
middle C; the target is an instrument in F. The target part may be
transposed using \transpose
. In this case, all the pitches
(including the quoted ones) are transposed.
\addQuote clarinet { \transposition bes \repeat unfold 8 { d'16 d' d'8 } } \addQuote sax { \transposition es' \repeat unfold 16 { a8 } } quoteTest = { % french horn \transposition f g'4 << \quoteDuring #"clarinet" { \skip 4 } s4^"clar." >> << \quoteDuring #"sax" { \skip 4 } s4^"sax." >> g'4 } { \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup { \center-column { Horn \line { in F } } } \quoteTest \transpose c' d' << \quoteTest s4_"up a tone" >> }
Quoting another voice
The quotedEventTypes
property determines the
music event types that are quoted. The default value is
(note-event rest-event)
, which means that only notes and
rests of the quoted voice appear in the \quoteDuring
expression. In the following example, a 16th rest is not quoted
since rest-event
is not in quotedEventTypes
.
quoteMe = \relative c' { fis4 r16 a8.-> b4\ff c } \addQuote quoteMe \quoteMe original = \relative c'' { c8 d s2 \once \override NoteColumn #'ignore-collision = ##t es8 gis8 } << \new Staff { \set Staff.instrumentName = #"quoteMe" \quoteMe } \new Staff { \set Staff.instrumentName = #"orig" \original } \new Staff \relative c'' << \set Staff.instrumentName = #"orig+quote" \set Staff.quotedEventTypes = #'(note-event articulation-event) \original \new Voice { s4 \set fontSize = #-4 \override Stem #'length-fraction = #(magstep -4) \quoteDuring #"quoteMe" { \skip 2. } } >> >>
See also
Notation Reference: Instrument transpositions, Using tags.
Snippets: Staff notation.
Internals Reference: QuoteMusic, Voice.
Known issues and warnings
Only the contents of the first Voice
occurring in an
\addQuote
command will be considered for quotation, so
music cannot contain \new
and \context Voice
statements that would switch to a different Voice.
Quoting grace notes is broken and can even cause LilyPond to crash.
Quoting nested triplets may result in poor notation.
In earlier versions of LilyPond (pre 2.11), addQuote
was
written entirely in lower-case letters: \addquote
.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Quoting other voices ] | [ Up : Writing parts ] | [ Editorial annotations > ] |
Formatting cue notes
The previous section explains how to create quotations. The
\cueDuring
command is a more specialized form of
\quoteDuring
, being particularly useful for inserting cue
notes into a part. The syntax is as follows:
\cueDuring #partname #voice music
This command copies the corresponding measures from partname
into a CueVoice
context. The CueVoice
is created
implicitly, and occurs simultaneously with music, which
creates a polyphonic situation. The voice argument
determines whether the cue notes should be notated as a first or
second voice; UP
corresponds to the first voice, and
DOWN
corresponds to the second.
oboe = \relative c'' { r2 r8 d16 f e g f a g8 g16 g g2. } \addQuote "oboe" { \oboe } \new Voice \relative c'' { \cueDuring #"oboe" #UP { R1 } g2 c, }
In the above example, the Voice
context had to be
explicitly declared, or else the entire music expression would
belong to the CueVoice
context.
The name of the cued instrument can be printed by setting the
instrumentCueName
property in the CueVoice
context.
oboe = \relative c''' { g4 r8 e16 f e4 d } \addQuote "oboe" { \oboe } \new Staff \relative c'' << \new CueVoice \with { instrumentCueName = "ob." } \new Voice { \cueDuring #"oboe" #UP { R1 } g4. b8 d2 } >>
In addition to printing the name of the cued instrument, when cue
notes end, the name of the original instrument should be printed,
and any other changes introduced by the cued part should be
undone. This can be accomplished by using
\addInstrumentDefinition
and \instrumentSwitch
. For
an example and explanation, see Instrument names.
The \killCues
command removes cue notes from a music
expression. This can be useful if cue notes need to be removed
from a part but may be restored at a later time.
flute = \relative c''' { r2 cis2 r2 dis2 } \addQuote "flute" { \flute } \new Voice \relative c'' { \killCues { \cueDuring #"flute" #UP { R1 } g4. b8 d2 } }
The \transposedCueDuring
command is useful for adding
instrumental cues from a completely different register. The
syntax is similar to \cueDuring
, but it requires one extra
argument to specify the transposition of the cued instrument. For
more information about transposition, see
Instrument transpositions.
piccolo = \relative c''' { \clef "treble^8" R1 c8 c c e g2 a4 g g2 } \addQuote "piccolo" { \piccolo } cbassoon = \relative c, { \clef "bass_8" c4 r g r \transposedCueDuring #"piccolo" #UP c,, { R1 } c4 r g r } << \new Staff = "piccolo" \piccolo \new Staff = "cbassoon" \cbassoon >>
It is possible to tag cued parts with unique names in order to process them in different ways. For details about this procedure, see Using tags.
See also
Notation Reference: Instrument transpositions, Instrument names, Using tags.
Snippets: Staff notation.
Internals Reference: CueVoice, Voice.
Known issues and warnings
Collisions can occur with rests, when using \cueDuring
,
between Voice
and CueVoice
contexts.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Formatting cue notes ] | [ Up : Musical notation ] | [ Inside the staff > ] |
1.7 Editorial annotations
This section discusses the various ways to change the appearance of notes and add analysis or educational emphasis.
1.7.1 Inside the staff | ||
1.7.2 Outside the staff |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Editorial annotations ] | [ Up : Editorial annotations ] | [ Selecting notation font size > ] |
1.7.1 Inside the staff
This section discusses how to add emphasis to elements that are inside the staff.
Selecting notation font size | ||
Fingering instructions | ||
Hidden notes | ||
Coloring objects | ||
Parentheses | ||
Stems |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Inside the staff ] | [ Up : Inside the staff ] | [ Fingering instructions > ] |
Selecting notation font size
The font size of notation elements may be altered. It does not change the size of variable symbols, such as beams or slurs.
Note: For font sizes of text, see Selecting font and font size. |
\huge c4.-> d8---3 \large c4.-> d8---3 \normalsize c4.-> d8---3 \small c4.-> d8---3 \tiny c4.-> d8---3 \teeny c4.-> d8---3
Internally, this sets the fontSize
property. This in turn
causes the font-size
property to be set in all layout
objects. The value of font-size
is a number indicating the
size relative to the standard size for the current staff height.
Each step up is an increase of approximately 12% of the font size.
Six steps is exactly a factor of two. The Scheme function
magstep
converts a font-size
number to a scaling
factor. The font-size
property can also be set directly,
so that only certain layout objects are affected.
\set fontSize = #3 c4.-> d8---3 \override NoteHead #'font-size = #-4 c4.-> d8---3 \override Script #'font-size = #2 c4.-> d8---3 \override Stem #'font-size = #-5 c4.-> d8---3
Font size changes are achieved by scaling the design size that is
closest to the desired size. The standard font size (for
font-size = #0
) depends on the standard staff height.
For a 20pt staff, a 10pt font is selected.
The font-size
property can only be set on layout objects
that use fonts. These are the ones supporting the
font-interface
layout interface.
Predefined commands
\teeny
,
\tiny
,
\small
,
\normalsize
,
\large
,
\huge
.
See also
Snippets: Editorial annotations.
Internals Reference: font-interface.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Selecting notation font size ] | [ Up : Inside the staff ] | [ Hidden notes > ] |
Fingering instructions
Fingering instructions can be entered using note-digit:
c4-1 d-2 f-4 e-3
Markup texts may be used for finger changes.
c4-1 d-2 f-4 c^\markup { \finger "2 - 3" }
A thumb-script can be added (e.g., in cello music) to indicate that a note should be played with the thumb.
<a_\thumb a'-3>2 <b_\thumb b'-3>
Fingerings for chords can also be added to individual notes of the chord by adding them after the pitches.
<c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5>2 <d-1 f-2 a-3 c-5>
Fingering instructions may be manually placed above or below the staff, see Direction and placement.
Selected Snippets
Controlling the placement of chord fingerings
The placement of fingering numbers can be controlled precisely.
\relative c' { \set fingeringOrientations = #'(left) <c-1 e-3 a-5>4 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(down) <c-1 e-3 a-5>4 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(down right up) <c-1 e-3 a-5>4 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(up) <c-1 e-3 a-5>4 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(left) <c-1>2 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(down) <e-3>2 }
Allowing fingerings to be printed inside the staff
By default, vertically oriented fingerings are positioned outside the staff. However, this behavior can be canceled.
\relative c' { <c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5>2 \once \override Fingering #'staff-padding = #'() <c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5>2 }
Avoiding collisions with chord fingerings
Fingerings and string numbers applied to individual notes will automatically avoid beams and stems, but this is not true by default for fingerings and string numbers applied to the individual notes of chords. The following example shows how this default behavior can be overridden.
\relative c' { \set fingeringOrientations = #'(up) \set stringNumberOrientations = #'(up) \set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(up) % Default behavior r8 <f c'-5>8 <f c'\5>8 <f c'-\rightHandFinger #2 >8 % Corrected to avoid collisions r8 \override Fingering #'add-stem-support = ##t <f c'-5>8 \override StringNumber #'add-stem-support = ##t <f c'\5>8 \override StrokeFinger #'add-stem-support = ##t <f c'-\rightHandFinger #2 >8 }
See also
Notation Reference: Direction and placement
Snippets: Editorial annotations.
Internals Reference: FingeringEvent, fingering-event, Fingering_engraver, New_fingering_engraver, Fingering.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Fingering instructions ] | [ Up : Inside the staff ] | [ Coloring objects > ] |
Hidden notes
Hidden (or invisible or transparent) notes can be useful in preparing theory or composition exercises.
c4 d \hideNotes e4 f \unHideNotes g a \hideNotes b \unHideNotes c
Notation objects which are attached to invisible notes are still visible.
c4( d) \hideNotes e4(\p f)--
Predefined commands
\hideNotes
,
\unHideNotes
.
See also
Snippets: Editorial annotations.
Internals Reference: Note_spacing_engraver, NoteSpacing.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Hidden notes ] | [ Up : Inside the staff ] | [ Parentheses > ] |
Coloring objects
Individual objects may be assigned colors. Valid color names are listed in the List of colors.
\override NoteHead #'color = #red c4 c \override NoteHead #'color = #(x11-color 'LimeGreen) d \override Stem #'color = #blue e
The full range of colors defined for X11 can be accessed by using
the Scheme function x11-color
. The function takes one
argument; this can be a symbol in the form ’FooBar or a
string in the form "FooBar". The first form is quicker to
write and is more efficient. However, using the second form it is
possible to access X11 colors by the multi-word form of its name.
If x11-color
cannot make sense of the parameter then the
color returned defaults to black.
\override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #(x11-color 'SlateBlue2) \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup { \with-color #(x11-color 'navy) "Clarinet" } gis8 a \override Beam #'color = #(x11-color "medium turquoise") gis a \override Accidental #'color = #(x11-color 'DarkRed) gis a \override NoteHead #'color = #(x11-color "LimeGreen") gis a % this is deliberate nonsense; note that the stems remain black \override Stem #'color = #(x11-color 'Boggle) b2 cis
Exact RGB colors can be specified using the Scheme function
rgb-color
.
\override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #(x11-color 'SlateBlue2) \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup { \with-color #(x11-color 'navy) "Clarinet" } \override Stem #'color = #(rgb-color 0 0 0) gis8 a \override Stem #'color = #(rgb-color 1 1 1) gis8 a \override Stem #'color = #(rgb-color 0 0 0.5) gis4 a
See also
Notation Reference:
List of colors, The \tweak
command.
Snippets: Editorial annotations.
Known issues and warnings
An X11 color is not necessarily exactly the same shade as a similarly named normal color.
Not all X11 colors are distinguishable in a web browser, i.e.,
a web browser might not display a difference between 'LimeGreen
and 'ForestGreen
. For web use normal colors are recommended
(i.e., #blue
, #green
, #red
).
Notes in a chord cannot be colored with \override
; use
\tweak
instead, see The \tweak
command.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Coloring objects ] | [ Up : Inside the staff ] | [ Stems > ] |
Parentheses
Objects may be parenthesized by prefixing \parenthesize
to
the music event. When prefixed to a chord, it parenthesizes every
note. Individual notes inside a chord may also be parenthesized.
c2 \parenthesize d c2 \parenthesize <c e g> c2 <c \parenthesize e g>
Non-note objects may be parenthesized as well.
c2-\parenthesize -. d c2 \parenthesize r
See also
Snippets: Editorial annotations.
Internals Reference: Parenthesis_engraver, ParenthesesItem, parentheses-interface.
Known issues and warnings
Parenthesizing a chord prints parentheses around each individual note, instead of a single large parenthesis around the entire chord.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Parentheses ] | [ Up : Inside the staff ] | [ Outside the staff > ] |
Stems
Whenever a note is found, a Stem
object is created
automatically. For whole notes and rests, they are also created but
made invisible.
Predefined commands
\stemUp
,
\stemDown
,
\stemNeutral
.
Selected Snippets
Default direction of stems on the center line of the staff
The default direction of stems on the center line of the staff is set
by the Stem
property neutral-direction
.
\relative c'' { a4 b c b \override Stem #'neutral-direction = #up a4 b c b \override Stem #'neutral-direction = #down a4 b c b }
See also
Notation Reference: Direction and placement.
Snippets: Editorial annotations.
Internals Reference: Stem_engraver, Stem, stem-interface.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Stems ] | [ Up : Editorial annotations ] | [ Balloon help > ] |
1.7.2 Outside the staff
This section discusses how to add emphasis to elements in the staff from outside of the staff.
Balloon help | ||
Grid lines | ||
Analysis brackets |
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Outside the staff ] | [ Up : Outside the staff ] | [ Grid lines > ] |
Balloon help
Elements of notation can be marked and named with the help of a square balloon. The primary purpose of this feature is to explain notation.
\new Voice \with { \consists "Balloon_engraver" } { \balloonGrobText #'Stem #'(3 . 4) \markup { "I'm a Stem" } a8 \balloonGrobText #'Rest #'(-4 . -4) \markup { "I'm a rest" } r <c, g'-\balloonText #'(-2 . -2) \markup { "I'm a note head" } c>2. }
There are two music functions, balloonGrobText
and
balloonText
; the former is used like
\once \override
to attach text to any grob, and the
latter is used like \tweak
, typically within chords, to
attach text to an individual note.
Balloon text normally influences note spacing, but this can be altered:
\new Voice \with { \consists "Balloon_engraver" } { \balloonLengthOff \balloonGrobText #'Stem #'(3 . 4) \markup { "I'm a Stem" } a8 \balloonGrobText #'Rest #'(-4 . -4) \markup { "I'm a rest" } r \balloonLengthOn <c, g'-\balloonText #'(-2 . -2) \markup { "I'm a note head" } c>2. }
Predefined commands
\balloonLengthOn
,
\balloonLengthOff
.
See also
Snippets: Editorial annotations.
Internals Reference: Balloon_engraver, BalloonTextItem, balloon-interface.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Balloon help ] | [ Up : Outside the staff ] | [ Analysis brackets > ] |
Grid lines
Vertical lines can be drawn between staves synchronized with the notes.
The Grid_point_engraver
must be used to create the end
points of the lines, while the Grid_line_span_engraver
must
be used to actually draw the lines. By default this centers grid
lines horizontally below and to the left side of each note head.
Grid lines extend from the middle lines of each staff. The
gridInterval
must specify the duration between the grid
lines.
\layout { \context { \Staff \consists "Grid_point_engraver" gridInterval = #(ly:make-moment 1 4) } \context { \Score \consists "Grid_line_span_engraver" } } \score { \new ChoirStaff << \new Staff \relative c'' { \stemUp c4. d8 e8 f g4 } \new Staff \relative c { \clef bass \stemDown c4 g' f e } >> }
Selected Snippets
Grid lines: changing their appearance
The appearance of grid lines can be changed by overriding some of their properties.
\score { \new ChoirStaff << \new Staff { \relative c'' { \stemUp c'4. d8 e8 f g4 } } \new Staff { \relative c { % this moves them up one staff space from the default position \override Score.GridLine #'extra-offset = #'(0.0 . 1.0) \stemDown \clef bass \once \override Score.GridLine #'thickness = #5.0 c4 \once \override Score.GridLine #'thickness = #1.0 g'4 \once \override Score.GridLine #'thickness = #3.0 f4 \once \override Score.GridLine #'thickness = #5.0 e4 } } >> \layout { \context { \Staff % set up grids \consists "Grid_point_engraver" % set the grid interval to one quarter note gridInterval = #(ly:make-moment 1 4) } \context { \Score \consists "Grid_line_span_engraver" % this moves them to the right half a staff space \override NoteColumn #'X-offset = #-0.5 } } }
See also
Snippets: Editorial annotations.
Internals Reference: Grid_line_span_engraver, Grid_point_engraver, GridLine, GridPoint, grid-line-interface, grid-point-interface.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Specialist notation >> ] | ||
[ < Grid lines ] | [ Up : Outside the staff ] | [ Text > ] |
Analysis brackets
Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical pieces. Simple horizontal brackets are supported.
\layout { \context { \Voice \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver" } } \relative c'' { c2\startGroup d\stopGroup }
Analysis brackets may be nested.
\layout { \context { \Voice \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver" } } \relative c'' { c4\startGroup\startGroup d4\stopGroup e4\startGroup d4\stopGroup\stopGroup }
See also
Snippets: Editorial annotations.
Internals Reference: Horizontal_bracket_engraver, HorizontalBracket, horizontal-bracket-interface, Staff.
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1.8 Text
This section explains how to include text (with various formatting) in music scores.
Some text elements that are not dealt with here are discussed in other specific sections: Vocal music, Titles and headers.
1.8.1 Writing text | ||
1.8.2 Formatting text | ||
1.8.3 Fonts |
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[ < Text ] | [ Up : Text ] | [ Text scripts > ] |
1.8.1 Writing text
This section introduces different ways of adding text to a score.
Note: To write accented and special text (such as characters from other languages), simply insert the characters directly into the LilyPond file. The file must be saved as UTF-8. For more information, see Text encoding. |
Text scripts | ||
Text spanners | ||
Text marks | ||
Separate text |
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Text scripts
Simple “quoted text” indications may be added to a score, as demonstrated in the following example. Such indications may be manually placed above or below the staff, using the syntax described in Direction and placement.
a8^"pizz." g f e a4-"scherz." f
This syntax is actually a shorthand; more complex text
formatting may be added to a note by explicitly using a
\markup
block, as described in Formatting text.
a8^\markup { \italic pizz. } g f e a4_\markup { \tiny scherz. \bold molto } f
By default, text indications do not influence the note spacing. However, their widths can be taken into account: in the following example, the first text string does not affect spacing, whereas the second one does.
a8^"pizz." g f e \textLengthOn a4_"scherzando" f
Predefined commands
\textLengthOn
,
\textLengthOff
.
See also
Notation Reference: Formatting text, Direction and placement.
Snippets: Text.
Internals Reference: TextScript.
Known issues and warnings
Checking to make sure that text scripts and lyrics are within the margins is a relatively large computational task. To speed up processing, LilyPond does not perform such calculations by default; to enable it, use
\override Score.PaperColumn #'keep-inside-line = ##t
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Text spanners
Some performance indications, e.g., rallentando or accelerando, are written as text and are extended over multiple notes with dotted lines. Such objects, called “spanners”, may be created from one note to another using the following syntax:
\override TextSpanner #'(bound-details left text) = "rit." b1\startTextSpan e,\stopTextSpan
The string to be printed is set through
object properties. By default it is printed in italic characters,
but different formatting can be obtained using
\markup
blocks, as described in Formatting text.
\override TextSpanner #'(bound-details left text) = \markup { \upright "rit." } b1\startTextSpan c e,\stopTextSpan
The line style, as well as the text string, can be defined as an object property. This syntax is described in Line styles.
Predefined commands
\textSpannerUp
,
\textSpannerDown
,
\textSpannerNeutral
.
See also
Notation Reference: Line styles, Dynamics.
Snippets: Text.
Internals Reference: TextSpanner.
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Text marks
Various text elements may be added to a score using the syntax described in Rehearsal marks:
c4 \mark "Allegro" c c c
This syntax makes it possible to put any text on a bar line;
more complex text formatting may be added using a \markup
block, as described in Formatting text:
<c e>1 \mark \markup { \italic { colla parte } } <d f>2 <e g> <c f aes>1
This syntax also allows to print special signs, like coda, segno or fermata, by specifying the appropriate symbol name as explained in Music notation inside markup:
<bes f>2 <aes d> \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts.ufermata" } <e g>1
Such objects are only typeset above the top staff of the score; depending on whether they are specified at the end or the middle of a bar, they can be placed above the bar line or between notes. When specified at a line break, the mark will be printed at the beginning of the next line.
\mark "Allegro" c1 c \mark "assai" \break c c
Selected Snippets
Printing marks at the end of a line or a score
Marks can be printed at the end of the current line, instead of the beginning of the following line. This is particularly useful when a mark has to be added at the end of a score – when there is no next line.
In such cases, the right end of the mark has to be aligned with the final bar line, as demonstrated on the second line of this example.
\relative c'' { \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible g2 c d,2 a' \mark \default \break g2 b, c1 \bar "||" \override Score.RehearsalMark #'self-alignment-X = #RIGHT \mark "D.C. al Fine" }
Aligning marks with various notation objects
If specified, text marks may be aligned with notation
objects other than bar lines. These objects include ambitus
,
breathing-sign
, clef
, custos
, staff-bar
,
left-edge
, key-cancellation
, key-signature
, and
time-signature
.
In such cases, text marks will be horizontally centered above the object. However this can be changed, as demonstrated on the second line of this example (in a score with multiple staves, this setting should be done for all the staves).
\relative c' { e1 % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the Clef \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(clef) \key a \major \clef treble \mark "↓" e1 % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the TimeSignature \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(time-signature) \key a \major \clef treble \time 3/4 \mark "↓" e2. % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the KeySignature \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(key-signature) \key a \major \clef treble \time 4/4 \mark "↓" e1 \break e1 % the RehearsalMark will be aligned with the left edge of the KeySignature \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor-alignment = #LEFT \mark "↓" \key a \major e1 % the RehearsalMark will be aligned with the right edge of the KeySignature \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor-alignment = #RIGHT \key a \major \mark "↓" e1 % the RehearsalMark will be aligned with the left edge of the KeySignature % and then shifted right by one unit. \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor = #1 \key a \major \mark "↓" e1 }
Printing marks on every staff
Although text marks are normally only printed above the topmost staff, they may also be printed on every staff.
\score { << \new Staff { c''1 \mark "molto" c'' } \new Staff { c'1 \mark "molto" c' } >> \layout { \context { \Score \remove "Mark_engraver" \remove "Staff_collecting_engraver" } \context { \Staff \consists "Mark_engraver" \consists "Staff_collecting_engraver" } } }
See also
Notation Reference: Rehearsal marks, Formatting text, Music notation inside markup, The Feta font.
Snippets: Text.
Internals Reference: RehearsalMark.
Known issues and warnings
If a mark is entered at the end of the last bar of the score (where there is no next line), then the mark will not be printed at all.
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Separate text
A \markup
block can exist by itself, outside of any
any \score
block, as a “top-level
expression”. This syntax is described in File structure.
\markup { Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow... }
This allows printing text separately from the music, which is particularly useful when the input file contains several music pieces, as described in Multiple scores in a book.
\score { c'1 } \markup { Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow... } \score { c'1 }
Separate text blocks can be spread over multiple pages, making it possible to print text documents or books entirely within LilyPond. This feature, and the specific syntax it requires, are described in Multi-page markup.
Predefined commands
\markup
,
\markuplines
.
Selected Snippets
Stand-alone two-column markup
Stand-alone text may be arranged in several columns using
\markup
commands:
\markup { \fill-line { \hspace #1.0 \column { \line {"O sacrum convivium" } \line {"in quo Christus sumitur," } \line {"recolitur memoria passionis ejus," } \line {"mens impletur gratia," } \line {"futurae gloriae nobis pignus datur." } \line {"Amen."} } \hspace #2 \column { \line { \italic {"O sacred feast"} } \line { \italic {"in which Christ is received,"} } \line { \italic {"the memory of His Passion is renewed,"} } \line { \italic {"the mind is filled with grace," } } \line { \italic {"and a pledge of future glory is given to us." }} \line { \italic {"Amen."}} } \hspace #1.0 } }
See also
Notation Reference: Formatting text, File structure, Multiple scores in a book, Multi-page markup.
Snippets: Text.
Internals Reference: TextScript.
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[ < Separate text ] | [ Up : Text ] | [ Text markup introduction > ] |
1.8.2 Formatting text
This section presents basic and advanced text formatting,
using the \markup
mode specific syntax.
Text markup introduction | ||
Selecting font and font size | ||
Text alignment | ||
Graphic notation inside markup | ||
Music notation inside markup | ||
Multi-page markup |
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Text markup introduction
A \markup
block is used to typeset text with an extensible
syntax called “markup mode”.
The markup syntax is similar to LilyPond’s usual syntax: a
\markup
expression is enclosed in curly braces {
… }
. A single word is regarded as a minimal expression,
and therefore does not need to be enclosed with braces.
Unlike simple “quoted text” indications, \markup
blocks
may contain nested expressions or markup commands,
entered using the backslash \
character.
Such commands only affect the first following expression.
a1-\markup intenso a2^\markup { poco \italic più forte } c e1 d2_\markup { \italic "string. assai" } e b1^\markup { \bold { molto \italic agitato } } c
A \markup
block may also contain quoted text strings.
Such strings are treated as minimal text expressions, and
therefore any markup command or special character (such as
\
and #
) will be printed verbatim without affecting
the formatting of the text. Double quotation marks themselves
may be printed by preceding them with backslashes.
a1^"\italic markup..." a_\markup { \italic "... prints \"italic\" letters!" } a a
To be treated as a distinct expression, a list of words needs
to be enclosed with double quotes or preceded by a command.
The way markup expressions are defined affects how these
expressions will be stacked, centered and aligned; in the
following example, the second \markup
expression is
treated the same as the first one:
c1^\markup { \center-column { a bbb c } } c1^\markup { \center-column { a { bbb c } } } c1^\markup { \center-column { a \line { bbb c } } } c1^\markup { \center-column { a "bbb c" } }
Markups can be stored in variables. Such variables may be directly attached to notes:
allegro = \markup { \bold \large Allegro } { d''8.^\allegro d'16 d'4 r2 }
An exhaustive list of \markup
-specific commands can be found in
Text markup commands.
See also
Notation Reference: Text markup commands.
Snippets: Text.
Installed files: ‘scm/markup.scm’.
Known issues and warnings
Syntax errors for markup mode can be confusing.
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Selecting font and font size
Basic font switching is supported in markup mode:
d1^\markup { \bold { Più mosso } \italic { non troppo \underline Vivo } } r2 r4 r8 d,_\markup { \italic quasi \smallCaps Tromba } f1 d2 r
The size of the characters can also be altered in different ways:
- the font size can be set to predefined standard sizes,
- the font size can be set to an absolute value,
- the font size can also be changed relatively to its previous value.
The following example demonstrates these three methods:
f1_\markup { \tiny espressivo \large e \normalsize intenso } a^\markup { \fontsize #5 Sinfonia \fontsize #2 da \fontsize #3 camera } bes^\markup { (con \larger grande \smaller emozione \magnify #0.6 { e sentimento } ) } d c2 r8 c bes a g1
Text may be printed as subscript or superscript. By default these are printed in a smaller size, but a normal size can be used as well:
\markup { \column { \line { 1 \super st movement } \line { 1 \normal-size-super st movement \sub { (part two) } } } }
The markup mode provides an easy way to select alternate font families. The default serif font, of roman type, is automatically selected unless specified otherwise; on the last line of the following example, there is no difference between the first and the second word.
\markup { \column { \line { Act \number 1 } \line { \sans { Scene I. } } \line { \typewriter { Verona. An open place. } } \line { Enter \roman Valentine and Proteus. } } }
Some of these font families, used for specific items such as numbers or dynamics, do not provide all characters, as mentioned in New dynamic marks and Manual repeat marks.
When used inside a word, some font-switching or formatting commands may produce an unwanted blank space. This can easily be solved by concatenating the text elements together:
\markup { \column { \line { \concat { 1 \super st } movement } \line { \concat { \dynamic p , } \italic { con dolce espressione } } } }
An exhaustive list of font switching, and custom font usage commands can be found in Font.
Defining custom font sets is also possible, as explained in Fonts.
Predefined commands
\teeny
,
\tiny
,
\small
,
\normalsize
,
\large
,
\huge
,
\smaller
,
\larger
.
See also
Notation Reference: Font, New dynamic marks, Manual repeat marks, Fonts.
Snippets: Text.
Internals Reference: TextScript.
Installed files: ‘scm/define-markup-commands.scm’.
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Text alignment
This subsection discusses how to place text in markup mode. Markup objects can also be moved as a whole, using the syntax described in Moving objects.
Markup objects may be aligned in different ways. By default, a text indication is aligned on its left edge: in the following example, there is no difference between the first and the second markup.
d1-\markup { poco } f d-\markup { \left-align poco } f d-\markup { \center-align { poco } } f d-\markup { \right-align poco }
Horizontal alignment may be fine-tuned using a numeric value:
a1-\markup { \halign #-1 poco } e' a,-\markup { \halign #0 poco } e' a,-\markup { \halign #0.5 poco } e' a,-\markup { \halign #2 poco }
Some objects may have alignment procedures of their own, and therefore are not affected by these commands. It is possible to move such markup objects as a whole, as shown for instance in Text marks.
Vertical alignment is a bit more complex. As stated above, markup objects can be moved as a whole; however, it is also possible to move specific elements inside a markup block. In this case, the element to be moved needs to be preceded with an anchor point, that can be another markup element or an invisible object. The following example demonstrates these two possibilities; the last markup in this example has no anchor point, and therefore is not moved.
d2^\markup { Acte I \raise #2 { Scène 1 } } a' g_\markup { \null \lower #4 \bold { Très modéré } } a d,^\markup { \raise #4 \italic { Une forêt. } } a'4 a g2 a
Some commands can affect both the horizontal and vertical alignment of text objects in markup mode. Any object affected by these commands must be preceded with an anchor point:
d2^\markup { Acte I \translate #'(-1 . 2) "Scène 1" } a' g_\markup { \null \general-align #Y #3.2 \bold "Très modéré" } a d,^\markup { \null \translate-scaled #'(-1 . 2) \teeny "Une forêt." } a'4 a g2 a
A markup object may include several lines of text. In the following example, each element or expression is placed on its own line, either left-aligned or centered:
\markup { \column { a "b c" \line { d e f } } \hspace #10 \center-column { a "b c" \line { d e f } } }
Similarly, a list of elements or expressions may be spread to fill the entire horizontal line width (if there is only one element, it will be centered on the page). These expressions can, in turn, include multi-line text or any other markup expression:
\markup { \fill-line { \line { William S. Gilbert } \center-column { \huge \smallCaps "The Mikado" or \smallCaps "The Town of Titipu" } \line { Sir Arthur Sullivan } } } \markup { \fill-line { 1885 } }
Long text indications can also be automatically wrapped accordingly to the given line width. These will be either left-aligned or justified, as shown in the following example.
\markup { \column { \line \smallCaps { La vida breve } \line \bold { Acto I } \wordwrap \italic { (La escena representa el corral de una casa de gitanos en el Albaicín de Granada. Al fondo una puerta por la que se ve el negro interior de una Fragua, iluminado por los rojos resplandores del fuego.) } \hspace #0 \line \bold { Acto II } \override #'(line-width . 50) \justify \italic { (Calle de Granada. Fachada de la casa de Carmela y su hermano Manuel con grandes ventanas abiertas a través de las que se ve el patio donde se celebra una alegre fiesta) } } }
An exhaustive list of text alignment commands can be found in Align.
See also
Learning Manual: Moving objects.
Notation Reference: Align, Text marks.
Snippets: Text.
Internals Reference: TextScript.
Installed files: ‘scm/define-markup-commands.scm’.
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Graphic notation inside markup
Various graphic objects may be added to a score, using markup commands.
Some markup commands allow decoration of text elements with graphics, as demonstrated in the following example.
\markup \fill-line { \center-column { \circle Jack \box "in the box" \null \line { Erik Satie \hspace #3 \bracket "1866 - 1925" } \null \rounded-box \bold Prelude } }
Some commands may require an increase in the padding around the text; this is achieved with some markup commands exhaustively described in Align.
\markup \fill-line { \center-column { \box "Charles Ives (1874 - 1954)" \null \box \pad-markup #2 "THE UNANSWERED QUESTION" \box \pad-x #8 "A Cosmic Landscape" \null } } \markup \column { \line { \hspace #10 \box \pad-to-box #'(-5 . 20) #'(0 . 5) \bold "Largo to Presto" } \pad-around #3 "String quartet keeps very even time, Flute quartet keeps very uneven time." }
Other graphic elements or symbols may be printed without requiring any text. As with any markup expression, such objects can be combined.
\markup { \combine \draw-circle #4 #0.4 ##f \filled-box #'(-4 . 4) #'(-0.5 . 0.5) #1 \hspace #5 \center-column { \triangle ##t \combine \draw-line #'(0 . 4) \arrow-head #Y #DOWN ##f } }
Advanced graphic features include the ability to include external image files converted to the Encapsulated PostScript format (eps), or to directly embed graphics into the input file, using native PostScript code. In such a case, it may be useful to explicitely specify the size of the drawing, as demonstrated below:
c1^\markup { \combine \epsfile #X #10 #"./context-example.eps" \with-dimensions #'(0 . 6) #'(0 . 10) \postscript #" -2 3 translate 2.7 2 scale newpath 2 -1 moveto 4 -2 4 1 1 arct 4 2 3 3 1 arct 0 4 0 3 1 arct 0 0 1 -1 1 arct closepath stroke" } c
An exhaustive list of graphics-specific commands can be found in Graphic.
See also
Notation Reference: Graphic, Editorial annotations.
Snippets: Text.
Internals Reference: TextScript.
Installed files: ‘scm/define-markup-commands.scm’, ‘scm/stencil.scm’.
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Music notation inside markup
Various musical notation elements may be added to a score, inside a markup object.
Notes and accidentals can be entered using markup commands:
a2 a^\markup { \note #"4" #1 = \note-by-number #1 #1 #1.5 } b1_\markup { \natural \semiflat \flat \sesquiflat \doubleflat } \glissando a1_\markup { \natural \semisharp \sharp \sesquisharp \doublesharp } \glissando b
Other notation objects may also be printed in markup mode:
g1 bes ees-\markup { \finger 4 \tied-lyric #"~" \finger 1 } fis_\markup { \dynamic rf } bes^\markup { \beam #8 #0.1 #0.5 } cis d-\markup { \markalphabet #8 \markletter #8 }
More generally, any available musical symbol may be included separately in a markup object, as demonstrated below; an exhaustive list of these symbols and their names can be found in The Feta font.
c2 c'^\markup { \musicglyph #"eight" } c,4 c,8._\markup { \musicglyph #"clefs.G_change" } c16 c2^\markup { \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural94" }
Another way of printing non-text glyphs is described in Fonts explained.
The markup mode also supports diagrams for specific instruments:
c1^\markup { \fret-diagram-terse #"x;x;o;2;3;2;" } c^\markup { \harp-pedal #"^-v|--ov^" } c c^\markup { \combine \musicglyph #"accordion.accDiscant" \combine \raise #0.5 \musicglyph #"accordion.accDot" \raise #1.5 \musicglyph #"accordion.accDot" }
Such diagrams are documented in Instrument Specific Markup.
A whole score can even be nested inside a markup object.
In such a case, the nested \score
block must
contain a \layout
block, as demonstrated here:
c4 d^\markup { \score { \relative c' { c4 d e f } \layout { } } } e f | c d e f
An exhaustive list of music notation related commands can be found in Music.
See also
Notation Reference: Music, The Feta font, Fonts explained.
Snippets: Text.
Internals Reference: TextScript.
Installed files: ‘scm/define-markup-commands.scm’, ‘scm/fret-diagrams.scm’, ‘scm/harp-pedals.scm’.
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Multi-page markup
Although standard markup objects are not breakable, a specific syntax makes it possible to enter lines of text that can spread over multiple pages:
\markuplines { \justified-lines { A very long text of justified lines. ... } \wordwrap-lines { Another very long paragraph. ... } ... }
This syntax accepts a list of markups, that can be
- the result of a markup list command,
- a list of markups,
- a list of markup lists.
An exhaustive list of markup list commands can be found in Text markup list commands.
See also
Notation Reference: Text markup list commands, New markup list command definition.
Snippets: Text.
Internals Reference: TextScript.
Installed files: ‘scm/define-markup-commands.scm’.
Predefined commands
\markuplines
.
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1.8.3 Fonts
This section presents the way fonts are handled, and how they may be changed in scores.
Fonts explained | ||
Single entry fonts | ||
Entire document fonts |
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Fonts explained
Fonts are handled through several libraries. FontConfig is used to detect available fonts on the system; the selected fonts are rendered using Pango.
Music notation fonts can be described as a set of
specific glyphs, ordered in several families.
The following syntax allows various LilyPond feta
non-text
fonts to be used directly in markup mode:
a1^\markup { \vcenter { \override #'(font-encoding . fetaBraces) \lookup #"brace120" \override #'(font-encoding . fetaNumber) \column { 1 3 } \override #'(font-encoding . fetaDynamic) sf \override #'(font-encoding . fetaMusic) \lookup #"noteheads.s0petrucci" } }
A simpler, but more limited syntax is also described in Music notation inside markup.
Three families of text fonts are made available: the roman (serif) font, that defaults to New Century Schoolbook, the sans font and the monospaced typewriter font – these last two families are determined by the Pango installation.
Each family may include different shapes and series.
The following example demonstrates the ability to select
alternate families, shapes, series and sizes. The value
supplied to font-size
is the required change from the
default size.
\override Score.RehearsalMark #'font-family = #'typewriter \mark \markup "Ouverture" \override Voice.TextScript #'font-shape = #'italic \override Voice.TextScript #'font-series = #'bold d2.^\markup "Allegro" \override Voice.TextScript #'font-size = #-3 c4^smaller
A similar syntax may be used in markup mode, however in this case it is preferable to use the simpler syntax explained in Selecting font and font size:
\markup { \column { \line { \override #'(font-shape . italic) \override #'(font-size . 4) Idomeneo, } \line { \override #'(font-family . typewriter) { \override #'(font-series . bold) re di } \override #'(font-family . sans) Creta } } }
Although it is easy to switch between preconfigured fonts, it is also possible to use other fonts, as explained in the following sections: Single entry fonts and Entire document fonts.
See also
Notation Reference: The Feta font, Music notation inside markup, Selecting font and font size, Font.
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Single entry fonts
Any font that is installed on the operating system and recognized by FontConfig may be used in a score, using the following syntax:
\override Staff.TimeSignature #'font-name = #"Charter" \override Staff.TimeSignature #'font-size = #2 \time 3/4 a1_\markup { \override #'(font-name . "Vera Bold") { Vera Bold } }
The following command displays a list of all available fonts on the operating system:
lilypond -dshow-available-fonts x
The last argument of the command can be anything, but has to be present.
See also
Notation Reference: Fonts explained, Entire document fonts.
Snippets: Text.
Installed files: ‘lily/font-config-scheme.cc’.
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Entire document fonts
It is possible to change the fonts to be used as the default fonts in the roman, sans and typewriter font families by specifying them, in that order, as shown in the example below. For an explanation of fonts, see Fonts explained.
\paper { myStaffSize = #20 #(define fonts (make-pango-font-tree "Times New Roman" "Nimbus Sans" "Luxi Mono" (/ myStaffSize 20))) } \relative c'{ c1-\markup { roman, \sans sans, \typewriter typewriter. } }
See also
Notation Reference: Fonts explained, Single entry fonts, Selecting font and font size, Font.
[ << Musical notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Entire document fonts ] | [ Up : Top ] | [ Vocal music > ] |
2. Specialist notation
This chapter explains how to create musical notation for specific types of instrument or in specific styles.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Specialist notation ] | [ Up : Specialist notation ] | [ Common notation for vocal music > ] |
2.1 Vocal music
This section explains how to typeset vocal music, and make sure that the lyrics will be aligned with the notes of their melody.
2.1.1 Common notation for vocal music | ||
2.1.2 Entering lyrics | ||
2.1.3 Aligning lyrics to a melody | ||
2.1.4 Specific uses of lyrics | ||
2.1.5 Stanzas |
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[ < Vocal music ] | [ Up : Vocal music ] | [ References for vocal music and lyrics > ] |
2.1.1 Common notation for vocal music
This section discusses issues related to vocal music in general, and to some particular styles of vocal music.
References for vocal music and lyrics | ||
Opera | ||
Song books | ||
Spoken music | ||
Chants | ||
Ancient vocal music |
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[ < Common notation for vocal music ] | [ Up : Common notation for vocal music ] | [ Opera > ] |
References for vocal music and lyrics
Various issues may arise when engraving vocal music. Some of these are discussed in this section, while others are explained elsewhere:
- Most styles of vocal music use written text as lyrics. An introduction to this notation is to be found in Setting simple songs.
-
Vocal music is likely to require the use of
markup
mode, either for lyrics of for other text elements (character’s names, etc.). This syntax is described in Text markup introduction. - Lead sheets may be printed by combining vocal parts and ‘chord mode’; this syntax is explained in Chord notation.
- ‘Ambitus’ may be added at the beginning of vocal staves, as explained in Ambitus.
- Vocal parts may be printed using traditional clefs, as shown in Clef.
- Ancient vocal music is supported, as explained in Ancient notation.
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[ < References for vocal music and lyrics ] | [ Up : Common notation for vocal music ] | [ Song books > ] |
Opera
TBC
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Opera ] | [ Up : Common notation for vocal music ] | [ Spoken music > ] |
Song books
TBC
Selected Snippets
Simple lead sheet
When put together, chord names, a melody, and lyrics form a lead sheet:
<< \chords { c2 g:sus4 f e } \relative c'' { a4 e c8 e r4 b2 c4( d) } \addlyrics { One day this shall be free __ } >>
See also
Notation Reference: Chord notation.
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[ < Song books ] | [ Up : Common notation for vocal music ] | [ Chants > ] |
Spoken music
Such effects as ‘parlato’ or ‘Sprechgesang’ require perfomers to speak without pitch but still with rhythm; these are notated by cross note heads, as demonstrated in Special note heads.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Spoken music ] | [ Up : Common notation for vocal music ] | [ Ancient vocal music > ] |
Chants
TBC
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Chants ] | [ Up : Common notation for vocal music ] | [ Entering lyrics > ] |
Ancient vocal music
TBC
See also
Notation Reference: Ancient notation.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Ancient vocal music ] | [ Up : Vocal music ] | [ Lyrics explained > ] |
2.1.2 Entering lyrics
Lyrics explained | ||
Setting simple songs | ||
Working with lyrics and variables |
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[ < Entering lyrics ] | [ Up : Entering lyrics ] | [ Setting simple songs > ] |
Lyrics explained
Since LilyPond input files are text, there is at least one
issue to consider when working with vocal music:
song texts must be interpreted as text, not notes. For example, the
input d
should be interpreted as a one letter syllable,
not the note D.
Therefore, a special lyric mode has to be used, either explicitely
or using some abbreviated methods.
Lyrics are entered in a special input mode, which can be introduced
by the keyword \lyricmode
, or by using \addlyrics
or
\lyricsto
. In this mode you can enter lyrics,
with punctuation and accents, and the input d
is not parsed as
a pitch, but rather as a one letter syllable. Syllables are entered
like notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,
\lyricmode { Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 }
There are two main methods to specify the horizontal placement
of the syllables, either by specifying the duration of each syllable
explicitly, like in the example above, or by automatically aligning
the lyrics to a melody or other voice of music, using \addlyrics
or \lyricsto
.
A word or syllable of lyrics begins with an alphabetic character, and ends with any space or digit. The following characters can be any character that is not a digit or white space.
Any character that is not a digit or white space will be regarded as
part of the syllable; one important consequence of this is that a word
can end with }
, which often leads to the following mistake:
\lyricmode { lah- lah}
In this example, the }
is included in the final syllable, so the
opening brace is not balanced and the input file will probably not
compile.
Similarly, a period which follows an alphabetic sequence is included in the resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around property commands: do not write
\override Score.LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic
but instead use
\override Score . LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic
In order to assign more than one syllable to a single note, you can
surround them with quotes or use a _
character, to get spaces
between syllables, or use tilde symbol (~
) to get a lyric tie.
\time 3/4 \relative c' { c2 e4 g2 e4 } \addlyrics { gran- de_a- mi- go } \addlyrics { pu- "ro y ho-" nes- to } \addlyrics { pu- ro~y~ho- nes- to }
The lyric tie is implemented with the Unicode character
U+203F
; therefore a font that includes this glyph
(such as DejaVuLGC) has to be used. More explanations about
text and non-text fonts can be found in Fonts.
To enter lyrics with characters from non-English languages, or with accented and special characters (such as the heart symbol or slanted quotes), simply insert the characters directly into the input file and save it with UTF-8 encoding. See Text encoding, for more info.
\relative c' { e4 f e d e f e2 } \addlyrics { He said: “Let my peo ple go”. }
To use normal quotes in lyrics, add a backslash before the quotes. For example,
\relative c' { \time 3/4 e4 e4. e8 d4 e d c2. } \addlyrics { "\"I" am so lone- "ly\"" said she }
The full definition of a word start in Lyrics mode is somewhat more complex.
A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, _
,
?
, !
, :
, '
, the control characters ^A
through ^F
, ^Q
through ^W
, ^Y
, ^^
,
any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character
combination of a backslash followed by one of `
, '
,
"
, or ^
.
To define variables containing lyrics, the function lyricmode
must be used.
verseOne = \lyricmode { Joy to the world the Lord is come } \score { << \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' { \autoBeamOff \time 2/4 c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2 } \addlyrics { \verseOne } >> }
See also
Notation Reference: Fonts.
Internals Reference: LyricText, LyricSpace.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Lyrics explained ] | [ Up : Entering lyrics ] | [ Working with lyrics and variables > ] |
Setting simple songs
The easiest way to add lyrics to a melody is to append
\addlyrics { the lyrics }
to a melody. Here is an example,
\time 3/4 \relative c' { c2 e4 g2. } \addlyrics { play the game }
More stanzas can be added by adding more
\addlyrics
sections
\time 3/4 \relative c' { c2 e4 g2. } \addlyrics { play the game } \addlyrics { speel het spel } \addlyrics { joue le jeu }
The command \addlyrics
cannot handle polyphony settings. For these
cases you should use \lyricsto
and \lyricmode
, as will be
introduced in Lyrics explained.
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[ < Setting simple songs ] | [ Up : Entering lyrics ] | [ Aligning lyrics to a melody > ] |
Working with lyrics and variables
To define variables containing lyrics, the function \lyricmode
must be used. You do not have to enter durations though, if you add
\addlyrics
or \lyricsto
when invoking your variable.
verseOne = \lyricmode { Joy to the world the Lord is come } \score { << \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' { \autoBeamOff \time 2/4 c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2 } \addlyrics { \verseOne } >> }
For different or more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the hierarchy of staves and lyrics first, e.g.,
\new ChoirStaff << \new Voice = "soprano" { music } \new Lyrics = "sopranoLyrics" { s1 } \new Lyrics = "tenorLyrics" { s1 } \new Voice = "tenor" { music } >>
and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines
\context Lyrics = sopranoLyrics \lyricsto "soprano" the lyrics
The final input would resemble
<<\new ChoirStaff << setup the music >> \lyricsto "soprano" etc \lyricsto "alto" etc etc >>
See also
Internals Reference: LyricCombineMusic, Lyrics.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Working with lyrics and variables ] | [ Up : Vocal music ] | [ Automatic syllable durations > ] |
2.1.3 Aligning lyrics to a melody
Aligning of text with melodies can be made automatically, but if you specify the durations of the syllables it can also be made manually. Lyrics aligning and typesetting are prepared with the help of skips, hyphens and extender lines.
Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the context called Lyrics.
\new Lyrics \lyricmode …
There are two main methods to specify the horizontal placement of the syllables:
-
by automatically aligning
the lyrics to a melody or other voice of music, using
\addlyrics
or\lyricsto
. -
or by specifying the duration of each syllable
explicitly, using
\lyricmode
Automatic syllable durations | ||
Manual syllable durations | ||
Multiple syllables to one note | ||
Multiple notes to one syllable | ||
Skipping notes | ||
Extenders and hyphens | ||
Lyrics and repeats |
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[ < Aligning lyrics to a melody ] | [ Up : Aligning lyrics to a melody ] | [ Manual syllable durations > ] |
Automatic syllable durations
The lyrics can be aligned under a given melody
automatically. This is achieved by combining the
melody and the lyrics with the \lyricsto
expression
\new Lyrics \lyricsto name …
This aligns the lyrics to the
notes of the
Voice context called name, which must
already exist. Therefore normally the Voice
is specified first, and
then the lyrics are specified with \lyricsto
. The command
\lyricsto
switches to \lyricmode
mode automatically, so the
\lyricmode
keyword may be omitted.
The following example uses different commands for entering lyrics.
<< \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' { \autoBeamOff \time 2/4 c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2 } % not recommended: left aligns syllables \new Lyrics \lyricmode { Joy4 to8. the16 world!4. the8 Lord4 is come.2 } % wrong: durations needed \new Lyrics \lyricmode { Joy to the earth! the Sa -- viour reigns. } %correct \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" { No more let sins and sor -- rows grow. } >>
The second stanza is not properly aligned because the durations
were not specified. A solution for that would be to use \lyricsto
.
The \addlyrics
command is actually just a convenient way
to write a more complicated LilyPond structure that sets up the
lyrics.
{ MUSIC } \addlyrics { LYRICS }
is the same as
\new Voice = "blah" { music } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "blah" { LYRICS }
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[ < Automatic syllable durations ] | [ Up : Aligning lyrics to a melody ] | [ Multiple syllables to one note > ] |
Manual syllable durations
Lyrics can also be entered without \addlyrics
or
\lyricsto
. In this case,
syllables are entered like notes – but with pitches replaced by text – and the
duration of each syllable must be entered explicitly. For example:
play2 the4 game2. sink2 or4 swim2.
The alignment to a melody can be specified with the
associatedVoice
property,
\set associatedVoice = #"lala"
The value of the property (here: "lala"
) should be the name of
a
Voice context. Without this setting, extender lines
will not be formatted properly.
Here is an example demonstrating manual lyric durations,
<< \new Voice = "melody" { \time 3/4 c2 e4 g2. } \new Lyrics \lyricmode { \set associatedVoice = #"melody" play2 the4 game2. } >>
See also
Internals Reference: Lyrics.
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[ < Manual syllable durations ] | [ Up : Aligning lyrics to a melody ] | [ Multiple notes to one syllable > ] |
Multiple syllables to one note
In order to assign more than one syllable to a single note, you can
surround them with quotes or use a _
character, to get spaces
between syllables, or use tilde symbol (~
) to get a lyric
tie1.
\time 3/4 \relative c' { c2 e4 g2 e4 } \addlyrics { gran- de_a- mi- go } \addlyrics { pu- "ro y ho-" nes- to } \addlyrics { pu- ro~y~ho- nes- to }
See also
Internals Reference: LyricCombineMusic.
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[ < Multiple syllables to one note ] | [ Up : Aligning lyrics to a melody ] | [ Skipping notes > ] |
Multiple notes to one syllable
Sometimes, particularly in Medieval music, several notes are to be sung on one single syllable; such vocalises are called melismas, or melismata.
You can define melismata entirely in the lyrics, by entering _
for every extra note that has to be added to the melisma.
Additionaly, you can make an extender line to be typeset to indicate the melisma in the score, writing a double underscore next to the first syllable of the melisma. This example shows the three elements that are used for this purpose (all of them surrounded by spaces): double hyphens to separate syllables in a word, underscores to add notes to a melisma, and a double underscore to put an extender line.
{ \set melismaBusyProperties = #'() c d( e) f f( e) e e } \addlyrics { Ky -- _ _ ri __ _ _ _ e }
In this case, you can also have ties and slurs in the melody if you
set melismaBusyProperties
, as is done in the example above.
However, the \lyricsto
command can also
detect melismata automatically: it only puts one
syllable under a tied or slurred group of notes. If you want to force
an unslurred group of notes to be a melisma, insert \melisma
after the first note of the group, and \melismaEnd
after the
last one, e.g.,
<< \new Voice = "lala" { \time 3/4 f4 g8 \melisma f e f \melismaEnd e2 } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lala" { la di __ daah } >>
In addition, notes are considered a melisma if they are manually beamed, and automatic beaming (see Setting automatic beam behavior) is switched off.
A complete example of a SATB score setup is in section Vocal ensembles.
Predefined commands
See also
Known issues and warnings
Melismata are not detected automatically, and extender lines must be inserted by hand.
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[ < Multiple notes to one syllable ] | [ Up : Aligning lyrics to a melody ] | [ Extenders and hyphens > ] |
Skipping notes
Making a lyric line run slower than the melody can be achieved by
inserting \skip
s into the lyrics. For every \skip
,
the text will be delayed another note. The \skip
command
must be followed by a valid duration, but this is ignored when
\skip
is used in lyrics.
For example,
\relative c' { c c g' } \addlyrics { twin -- \skip 4 kle }
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Skipping notes ] | [ Up : Aligning lyrics to a melody ] | [ Lyrics and repeats > ] |
Extenders and hyphens
In the last syllable of a word, melismata are sometimes indicated with a long horizontal line starting in the melisma syllable, and ending in the next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as ‘ __ ’ (note the spaces before and after the two underscore characters).
Note: Melismata are indicated in the score with extender lines, which are entered as one double underscore; but short melismata can also be entered by skipping individual notes, which are entered as single underscore characters; these do not make an extender line to be typeset by default. |
Centered hyphens are entered as ‘ -- ’ between syllables of a same word (note the spaces before and after the two hyphen characters). The hyphen will be centered between the syllables, and its length will be adjusted depending on the space between the syllables.
In tightly engraved music, hyphens can be removed. Whether this
happens can be controlled with the minimum-distance
(minimum
distance between two syllables) and the minimum-length
(threshold below which hyphens are removed).
See also
Internals Reference: LyricExtender, LyricHyphen
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Extenders and hyphens ] | [ Up : Aligning lyrics to a melody ] | [ Specific uses of lyrics > ] |
Lyrics and repeats
TBC
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Lyrics and repeats ] | [ Up : Vocal music ] | [ Divisi lyrics > ] |
2.1.4 Specific uses of lyrics
Often, different stanzas of one song are put to one melody in slightly
differing ways. Such variations can still be captured with
\lyricsto
.
Divisi lyrics | ||
Lyrics independent of notes | ||
Spacing out syllables | ||
Centering lyrics between staves |
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[ < Specific uses of lyrics ] | [ Up : Specific uses of lyrics ] | [ Lyrics independent of notes > ] |
Divisi lyrics
You can display alternate (or divisi) lyrics by naming voice contexts and attaching lyrics to those specific contexts.
\score{ << \new Voice = "melody" { \relative c' { c4 << { \voiceOne c8 e } \new Voice = "splitpart" { \voiceTwo c4 } >> \oneVoice c4 c | c } } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" { we shall not o- ver- come } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "splitpart" { will } >> }
You can use this trick to display different lyrics for a repeated section.
\score{ << \new Voice = "melody" \relative c' { c2 e | g e | c1 | \new Voice = "verse" \repeat volta 2 {c4 d e f | g1 | } a2 b | c1} \new Lyrics = "mainlyrics" \lyricsto melody \lyricmode { do mi sol mi do la si do } \context Lyrics = "mainlyrics" \lyricsto verse \lyricmode { do re mi fa sol } \new Lyrics = "repeatlyrics" \lyricsto verse \lyricmode { dodo rere mimi fafa solsol } >> }
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[ < Divisi lyrics ] | [ Up : Specific uses of lyrics ] | [ Spacing out syllables > ] |
Lyrics independent of notes
In some complex vocal music, it may be desirable to place
lyrics completely independently of notes. Music defined
inside lyricrhythm
disappears into the
Devnull
context, but the rhythms can still be used
to place the lyrics.
voice = { c''2 \tag #'music { c''2 } \tag #'lyricrhythm { c''4. c''8 } d''1 } lyr = \lyricmode { I like my cat! } << \new Staff \keepWithTag #'music \voice \new Devnull="nowhere" \keepWithTag #'lyricrhythm \voice \new Lyrics \lyricsto "nowhere" \lyr \new Staff { c'8 c' c' c' c' c' c' c' c' c' c' c' c' c' c' c' } >>
This method is recommended only if the music in the Devnull
context does not contain melismata. Melismata are defined by the
Voice
context. Connecting lyrics to a Devnull
context
makes the voice/lyrics links to get lost, and so does the info on
melismata. Therefore, if you link lyrics to a Devnull
context,
the implicit melismata get ignored.
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[ < Lyrics independent of notes ] | [ Up : Specific uses of lyrics ] | [ Centering lyrics between staves > ] |
Spacing out syllables
To increase the spacing between lyrics, set the minimum-distance property of LyricSpace.
{ c c c c \override Lyrics.LyricSpace #'minimum-distance = #1.0 c c c c } \addlyrics { longtext longtext longtext longtext longtext longtext longtext longtext }
To make this change for all lyrics in the score, set the property in the layout.
\score { \relative c' { c c c c c c c c } \addlyrics { longtext longtext longtext longtext longtext longtext longtext longtext } \layout { \context { \Lyrics \override LyricSpace #'minimum-distance = #1.0 } } }
Selected Snippets
Checking to make sure that text scripts and lyrics are within the margins is a relatively large computational task. To speed up processing, LilyPond does not perform such calculations by default; to enable it, use
\override Score.PaperColumn #'keep-inside-line = ##t
To make lyrics avoid bar lines as well, use
\layout { \context { \Lyrics \consists "Bar_engraver" \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver" \override BarLine #'transparent = ##t } }
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[ < Spacing out syllables ] | [ Up : Specific uses of lyrics ] | [ Stanzas > ] |
Centering lyrics between staves
TBC
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[ < Centering lyrics between staves ] | [ Up : Vocal music ] | [ Adding stanza numbers > ] |
2.1.5 Stanzas
Adding stanza numbers | ||
Adding dynamics marks to stanzas | ||
Adding singers’ names to stanzas | ||
Stanzas with different rhythms | ||
Printing stanzas at the end | ||
Printing stanzas at the end in multiple columns |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Stanzas ] | [ Up : Stanzas ] | [ Adding dynamics marks to stanzas > ] |
Adding stanza numbers
Stanza numbers can be added by setting stanza
, e.g.,
\new Voice { \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2. } \addlyrics { \set stanza = #"1. " Hi, my name is Bert. } \addlyrics { \set stanza = #"2. " Oh, ché -- ri, je t'aime }
These numbers are put just before the start of the first syllable.
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[ < Adding stanza numbers ] | [ Up : Stanzas ] | [ Adding singers' names to stanzas > ] |
Adding dynamics marks to stanzas
Stanzas differing in loudness may be indicated by putting a
dynamics mark before each stanza. In LilyPond, everything coming in
front of a stanza goes into the StanzaNumber
object; dynamics marks
are no different. For technical reasons, you have to set the stanza
outside \lyricmode
:
text = { \set stanza = \markup { \dynamic "ff" "1. " } \lyricmode { Big bang } } << \new Voice = "tune" { \time 3/4 g'4 c'2 } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tune" \text >>
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[ < Adding dynamics marks to stanzas ] | [ Up : Stanzas ] | [ Stanzas with different rhythms > ] |
Adding singers’ names to stanzas
Names of singers can also be added. They are printed at the start of
the line, just like instrument names. They are created by setting
vocalName
. A short version may be entered as shortVocalName
.
\new Voice { \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2. } \addlyrics { \set vocalName = #"Bert " Hi, my name is Bert. } \addlyrics { \set vocalName = #"Ernie " Oh, ché -- ri, je t'aime }
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Adding singers' names to stanzas ] | [ Up : Stanzas ] | [ Printing stanzas at the end > ] |
Stanzas with different rhythms
Ignoring melismata
One possibility is that the text has a melisma in one stanza, but
multiple syllables in another one. One solution is to make the faster
voice ignore the melisma. This is done by setting
ignoreMelismata
in the Lyrics context.
<< \relative c' \new Voice = "lahlah" { \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f c4 \slurDotted f8.[( g16]) a4 } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" { more slow -- ly } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" { go \set ignoreMelismata = ##t fas -- ter \unset ignoreMelismata still } >>
Known issues and warnings
Unlike most \set
commands, \set ignoreMelismata
does
not work if prefixed with \once
. It is necessary to use
\set
and \unset
to bracket the lyrics where melismata
are to be ignored.
Switching to an alternative melody
More complex variations in text underlay are possible. It is possible
to switch the melody for a line of lyrics during the text. This is
done by setting the associatedVoice
property. In the example
the text for the first stanza is set to a melody called ‘lahlah’,
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" { Ju -- ras -- sic Park }
The second stanza initially is set to the lahlah
context, but
for the syllable ‘ran’, it switches to a different melody.
This is achieved with
\set associatedVoice = alternative
Here, alternative
is the name of the Voice
context
containing the triplet.
This command must be one syllable too early, before ‘Ty’ in this case. In other words, changing the associatedVoice happens one step later than expected. This is for technical reasons, and it is not a bug.
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" { \set associatedVoice = alternative % applies to "ran" Ty -- ran -- no -- \set associatedVoice = lahlah % applies to "rus" sau -- rus Rex }
The underlay is switched back to the starting situation by assigning
lahlah
to associatedVoice
.
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[ < Stanzas with different rhythms ] | [ Up : Stanzas ] | [ Printing stanzas at the end in multiple columns > ] |
Printing stanzas at the end
Sometimes it is appropriate to have one stanza set
to the music, and the rest added in verse form at
the end of the piece. This can be accomplished by adding
the extra verses into a \markup
section outside
of the main score block. Notice that there are two
different ways to force linebreaks when using
\markup
.
melody = \relative c' { e d c d | e e e e | d d e d | c1 | } text = \lyricmode { \set stanza = #"1." Ma- ry had a lit- tle lamb, its fleece was white as snow. } \score{ << \new Voice = "one" { \melody } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text >> \layout { } } \markup { \column{ \line{ Verse 2. } \line{ All the children laughed and played } \line{ To see a lamb at school. } } } \markup{ \wordwrap-string #" Verse 3. Mary took it home again, It was against the rule." }
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Printing stanzas at the end ] | [ Up : Stanzas ] | [ Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments > ] |
Printing stanzas at the end in multiple columns
When a piece of music has many verses, they are often printed in multiple columns across the page. An outdented verse number often introduces each verse. The following example shows how to produce such output in LilyPond.
melody = \relative c' { c c c c | d d d d } text = \lyricmode { \set stanza = #"1." This is verse one. It has two lines. } \score{ << \new Voice = "one" { \melody } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text >> \layout { } } \markup { \fill-line { \hspace #0.1 % moves the column off the left margin; % can be removed if space on the page is tight \column { \line { \bold "2." \column { "This is verse two." "It has two lines." } } \hspace #0.1 % adds vertical spacing between verses \line { \bold "3." \column { "This is verse three." "It has two lines." } } } \hspace #0.1 % adds horizontal spacing between columns; % if they are still too close, add more " " pairs % until the result looks good \column { \line { \bold "4." \column { "This is verse four." "It has two lines." } } \hspace #0.1 % adds vertical spacing between verses \line { \bold "5." \column { "This is verse five." "It has two lines." } } } \hspace #0.1 % gives some extra space on the right margin; % can be removed if page space is tight } }
See also
Internals Reference: LyricText, StanzaNumber.
2.2 Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments
This section discusses several aspects of music notation that are unique to keyboard instruments and other instruments notated on many staves, such as harps and vibraphones. For the purposes of this section this entire group of multi-staff instruments is called “keyboards” for short, even though some of them do not have a keyboard.
2.2.1 Common notation for keyboards | ||
2.2.2 Piano | ||
2.2.3 Accordion | ||
2.2.4 Harp |
2.2.1 Common notation for keyboards
This section discusses notation issues that may arise for most keyboard instruments.
References for keyboards | ||
Changing staff manually | ||
Changing staff automatically | ||
Staff-change lines | ||
Cross-staff stems |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Common notation for keyboards ] | [ Up : Common notation for keyboards ] | [ Changing staff manually > ] |
References for keyboards
Keyboard instruments are usually notated with Piano staves. These
are two or more normal staves coupled with a brace. The same
notation is also used for other keyed instruments.
Organ music is normally written with two staves inside a
PianoStaff
group and third, normal staff for the pedals.
The staves in keyboard music are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. This section discusses notation techniques particular to keyboard music.
Several common issues in keyboard music are covered elsewhere:
- Keyboard music usually contains multiple voices and the number of voices may change regularly; this is described in Collision resolution.
- Keyboard music can be written in parallel, as described in Writing music in parallel.
- Fingerings are indicated with Fingering instructions.
- Organ pedal indications are inserted as articulations, see List of articulations.
- Vertical grid lines can be shown with Grid lines.
- Keyboard music often contains Laissez vibrer ties as well as ties on arpeggios and tremolos, described in Ties.
- Placing arpeggios across multiple voices and staves is covered in Arpeggio.
- Tremolo marks are described in Tremolo repeats.
- Several of the tweaks that can occur in keyboard music are demonstrated in Real music example.
- Hidden notes can be used to produce ties that cross voices, as shown in Other uses for tweaks.
See also
Learning Manual: Real music example, Other uses for tweaks.
Notation Reference: Grouping staves, Instrument names, Collision resolution, Writing music in parallel, Fingering instructions, List of articulations, Grid lines, Ties, Arpeggio, Tremolo repeats.
Internals Reference: PianoStaff.
Snippets: Keyboards.
Known issues and warnings
Dynamics are not automatically centered, but workarounds do exist. One
option is the ‘piano centered dynamics’ template under
Piano templates; another option is to increase the
staff-padding
of dynamics as discussed in
objects
Moving objects.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < References for keyboards ] | [ Up : Common notation for keyboards ] | [ Changing staff automatically > ] |
Changing staff manually
Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the command
\change Staff = staffname
The string staffname is the name of the staff. It switches
the current voice from its current staff to the staff called
staffname. Typical values for staffname are
"up"
and "down"
, or "RH"
and "LH"
.
Cross-staff notes are beamed automatically:
\new PianoStaff << \new Staff = "up" { <e' c'>8 \change Staff = "down" g8 fis g \change Staff = "up" <g'' c''>8 \change Staff = "down" e8 dis e \change Staff = "up" } \new Staff = "down" { \clef bass % keep staff alive s1 } >>
If the beaming needs to be tweaked, make any changes to the stem directions first. The beam positions are then measured from the center of the staff that is closest to the beam. For a simple example of beam tweaking, see notation Fixing overlapping notation.
See also
Learning Manual: Fixing overlapping notation.
Notation Reference: Stems, Automatic beams.
Snippets: Keyboards.
Internals Reference: Beam, ContextChange.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Changing staff manually ] | [ Up : Common notation for keyboards ] | [ Staff-change lines > ] |
Changing staff automatically
Voices can be made to switch automatically between the top and the bottom staff. The syntax for this is
\autochange …music…
This will create two staves inside the current staff group
(usually a PianoStaff
), called "up"
and
"down"
. The lower staff will be in the bass clef by default.
The autochanger switches on the basis of the pitch (middle C is the
turning point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch
in advance.
\new PianoStaff { \autochange { g4 a b c' d'4 r a g } }
A \relative
section that is outside of \autochange
has no effect on the pitches of the music, so if necessary, put
\relative
inside \autochange
.
If additional control is needed over the individual staves, they
can be created manually with the names "up"
and
"down"
. The \autochange
command will then switch
its voice between the existing staves.
Note: If staves are created manually, they must be named
|
For example, staves must be created manually in order to place a key signature in the lower staff:
\new PianoStaff << \new Staff = "up" { \new Voice = "melOne" { \key g \major \autochange \relative c' { g8 b a c b d c e d8 r fis, g a2 } } } \new Staff = "down" { \key g \major \clef bass } >>
See also
Notation Reference: Changing staff manually.
Snippets: Keyboards.
Internals Reference: AutoChangeMusic.
Known issues and warnings
The staff switches may not end up in optimal places. For high quality output, staff switches should be specified manually.
Chords will not be split across the staves; they will be assigned to a staff based on the first note named in the chord construct.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Changing staff automatically ] | [ Up : Common notation for keyboards ] | [ Cross-staff stems > ] |
Staff-change lines
Whenever a voice switches to another staff, a line connecting the notes can be printed automatically:
\new PianoStaff << \new Staff = "one" { \showStaffSwitch c1 \change Staff = "two" b2 a } \new Staff = "two" { \clef bass s1*2 } >>
Predefined commands
\showStaffSwitch
,
\hideStaffSwitch
.
See also
Snippets: Keyboards.
Internals Reference: Note_head_line_engraver, VoiceFollower.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Staff-change lines ] | [ Up : Common notation for keyboards ] | [ Piano > ] |
Cross-staff stems
Chords that cross staves may be produced:
\new PianoStaff << \new Staff { \relative c' { f8 e4 d8 d f e4 } } \new Staff { \relative c' { << { \clef bass % stems may overlap the other staff \override Stem #'cross-staff = ##t % extend the stems to reach other other staff \override Stem #'length = #12 % do not print extra flags \override Stem #'flag-style = #'no-flag % prevent beaming as needed a8 g4 f8 f bes\noBeam g4 } \\ { f,2 bes4 c } >> } } >>
Selected Snippets
Indicating cross-staff chords with arpeggio bracket
An arpeggio bracket can indicate that notes on two different staves are
to be played with the same hand. In order to do this, the
PianoStaff
must be set to accept cross-staff arpeggios and the
arpeggios must be set to the bracket shape in the PianoStaff
context.
(Debussy, Les collines d’Anacapri, m. 65)
\paper { ragged-right = ##t } \new PianoStaff << \set PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t \override PianoStaff.Arpeggio #'stencil = #ly:arpeggio::brew-chord-bracket \new Staff { \relative c' { \key b \major \time 6/8 b8-.(\arpeggio fis'-.\> cis-. e-. gis-. b-.)\!\fermata^\laissezVibrer \bar "||" } } \new Staff { \relative c' { \clef bass \key b \major << { <a e cis>2.\arpeggio } \\ { <a, e a,>2. } >> } } >>
See also
Snippets: Keyboards.
Internals Reference: Stem.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Cross-staff stems ] | [ Up : Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments ] | [ Piano pedals > ] |
2.2.2 Piano
This section discusses notation issues that relate most directly to the piano.
Piano pedals |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Piano ] | [ Up : Piano ] | [ Accordion > ] |
Piano pedals
Pianos generally have three pedals that alter the way sound is produced: sustain, sostenuto (sos.), and una corda (U.C.). Sustain pedals are also found on vibraphones and celestas.
c4\sustainOn d e g <c, f a>1\sustainOff c4\sostenutoOn e g c, <bes d f>1\sostenutoOff c4\unaCorda d e g <d fis a>1\treCorde
There are three styles of pedal indications: text, bracket, and mixed. The sustain pedal and the una corda pedal use the text style by default while the sostenuto pedal uses mixed by default.
c4\sustainOn g c2\sustainOff \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed c4\sustainOn g c d d\sustainOff\sustainOn g, c2\sustainOff \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket c4\sustainOn g c d d\sustainOff\sustainOn g, c2 \bar "|."
The placement of the pedal commands matches the physical movement of the sustain pedal during piano performance. Pedalling to the final bar line is indicated by omitting the final pedal up command.
See also
Notation Reference: Ties.
Snippets: Keyboards.
Internals Reference: SustainPedal, SustainPedalLineSpanner, SustainEvent, SostenutoPedal, SostenutoPedalLineSpanner, SostenutoEvent, UnaCordaPedal, UnaCordaPedalLineSpanner, UnaCordaEvent, PianoPedalBracket, Piano_pedal_engraver.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Piano pedals ] | [ Up : Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments ] | [ Discant symbols > ] |
2.2.3 Accordion
This section discusses notation that is unique to the accordion.
Discant symbols |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Accordion ] | [ Up : Accordion ] | [ Harp > ] |
Discant symbols
Accordions are often built with more than one set of reeds that may be in unison with, an octave above, or an octave below the written pitch. Each accordion maker has different names for the shifts that select the various reed combinations, such as oboe, musette, or bandonium, so a system of symbols has come into use to simplify the performance instructions.
Selected Snippets
Accordion-discant symbols
Accordion discant-specific symbols are added using \markup
. The
vertical placement of the symbols can be tweaked by changing the
\raise
arguments.
discant = \markup { \musicglyph #"accordion.accDiscant" } dot = \markup { \musicglyph #"accordion.accDot" } \layout { ragged-right = ##t } % 16 voets register accBasson = ^\markup { \combine \discant \raise #0.5 \dot } % een korig 8 en 16 voets register accBandon = ^\markup { \combine \discant \combine \raise #0.5 \dot \raise #1.5 \dot } accVCello = ^\markup { \combine \discant \combine \raise #0.5 \dot \combine \raise #1.5 \dot \translate #'(1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot } % 4-8-16 voets register accHarmon = ^\markup { \combine \discant \combine \raise #0.5 \dot \combine \raise #1.5 \dot \raise #2.5 \dot } accTrombon = ^\markup { \combine \discant \combine \raise #0.5 \dot \combine \raise #1.5 \dot \combine \translate #'(1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot \translate #'(-1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot } % eenkorig 4 en 16 voets register accOrgan = ^\markup { \combine \discant \combine \raise #0.5 \dot \raise #2.5 \dot } accMaster = ^\markup { \combine \discant \combine \raise #0.5 \dot \combine \raise #1.5 \dot \combine \translate #'(1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot \combine \translate #'(-1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot \raise #2.5 \dot } accAccord = ^\markup { \combine \discant \combine \raise #1.5 \dot \combine \translate #'(1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot \combine \translate #'(-1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot \raise #2.5 \dot } accMusette = ^\markup { \combine \discant \combine \raise #1.5 \dot \combine \translate #'(1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot \translate #'(-1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot } accCeleste = ^\markup { \combine \discant \combine \raise #1.5 \dot \translate #'(-1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot } accOboe = ^\markup { \combine \discant \combine \raise #1.5 \dot \raise #2.5 \dot } accClarin = ^\markup { \combine \discant \raise #1.5 \dot } accPiccolo = ^\markup { \combine \discant \raise #2.5 \dot } accViolin = ^\markup { \combine \discant \combine \raise #1.5 \dot \combine \translate #'(1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot \raise #2.5 \dot } \relative c'' { c4 d\accBasson e f c4 d\accBandon e f c4 d\accVCello e f c4 d\accHarmon e f c4 d\accTrombon e f \break c4 d\accOrgan e f c4 d\accMaster e f c4 d\accAccord e f c4 d\accMusette e f c4 d\accCeleste e f \break c4 d\accOboe e f c4 d\accClarin e f c4 d\accPiccolo e f c4 d\accViolin e f }
See also
Snippets: Keyboards.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Discant symbols ] | [ Up : Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments ] | [ References for harps > ] |
2.2.4 Harp
This section discusses notation issues that are unique to the harp.
References for harps | ||
Harp pedals |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Harp ] | [ Up : Harp ] | [ Harp pedals > ] |
References for harps
Some common characteristics of harp music are covered elsewhere:
- The glissando is the most characterisic harp technique, Glissando.
- A bisbigliando is written as a tremelo Tremolo repeats
- Natural harmonics are covered under Harmonics.
- For directional arpeggios and non-arpeggios, see Arpeggio.
See also
Notation Reference: Tremolo repeats Glissando Arpeggio Harmonics
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < References for harps ] | [ Up : Harp ] | [ Unfretted string instruments > ] |
Harp pedals
Harps have seven strings per octave that may be sounded at the natural, flattened, or sharpened pitch. In lever harps, each string is adjusted individually, but in pedal harps every string with the same pitch name is controlled by a single pedal. From the player’s left to right, the pedals are D, C, and B on the left and E, F, G, and A on the right. The position of the pedals may be indicated with text marks:
\textLengthOn cis1_\markup \concat \vcenter { [D \flat C \sharp B|E \sharp F \sharp G A \flat] } c!1_\markup \concat \vcenter {[ C \natural ]}
or pedal diagrams:
\textLengthOn cis1_\markup { \harp-pedal #"^v-|vv-^" } c!1_\markup { \harp-pedal #"^o--|vv-^" }
The \harp-pedal
command accepts a string of characters, where
^
is the highest pedal position (flattened pitch), -
is
the middle pedal postion (natural pitch), v
is the lowest pedal
position (sharpened pitch), and |
is the divider. A prefixed
o
will circle the following pedal symbol.
See also
Notation Reference: Text scripts Instrument Specific Markup
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Harp pedals ] | [ Up : Specialist notation ] | [ Common notation for unfretted strings > ] |
2.3 Unfretted string instruments
This section provides information and references which are helpful when writing for unfretted string instruments, principally orchestral strings.
2.3.1 Common notation for unfretted strings |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Unfretted string instruments ] | [ Up : Unfretted string instruments ] | [ References for unfretted strings > ] |
2.3.1 Common notation for unfretted strings
There is little specialist notation for unfretted string instruments. The music is notated on a single staff, and usually only a single voice is required. Two voices might be required for some double-stopped or divisi passages.
References for unfretted strings | ||
Bowing indications | ||
Harmonics | ||
Snap (Bartók) pizzicato |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Common notation for unfretted strings ] | [ Up : Common notation for unfretted strings ] | [ Bowing indications > ] |
References for unfretted strings
Most of the notation which is useful for orchestral strings and other bowed instruments is covered elsewhere:
- Textual indications such as “pizz.” and “arco” are added as simple text – see Text scripts.
- Fingerings, including the thumb indication, are described in Fingering instructions.
- Double stopping is normally indicated by writing a chord, see Chorded notes. Directives for playing chords may be added, see Arpeggio.
- A template for a string quartet can be found in String quartet. Others are shown in the snippets.
See also
Learning Manual: String quartet.
Notation Reference: Text scripts, Fingering instructions, Chorded notes, Arpeggio.
Snippets: Unfretted strings.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < References for unfretted strings ] | [ Up : Common notation for unfretted strings ] | [ Harmonics > ] |
Bowing indications
Bowing indications are created as articulations, which are described in Articulations and ornamentations.
The bowing commands, \upbow
and \downbow
, are used
with slurs as follows:
c4(\downbow d) e(\upbow f)
and the following example shows three ways in which an open A string on a violin might be indicated:
a4 \open a^\markup { \teeny "II" } a2^\markup { \small "sul A" }
Predefined commands
\downbow
,
\upbow
,
\open
.
See also
Notation Reference: Articulations and ornamentations, Slurs.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Bowing indications ] | [ Up : Common notation for unfretted strings ] | [ Snap (Bartok) pizzicato > ] |
Harmonics
Natural harmonics
Natural harmonics can be notated in several ways. A diamond-shaped note head generally means to touch the string where you would stop the note if it were not a diamond.
Note: Harmonics must be defined inside a chord construct even if there is only a single note. |
Dotted harmonics indicated with \harmonic
do not show the
dots. The context property harmonicDots
should be set if
dots are required.
<d\harmonic>4 <e\harmonic>2. \set harmonicDots = ##t <d\harmonic>4 <e\harmonic>2.
Alternatively a normal note head is shown at the pitch to be sounded together with a small circle to indicate it should be played as a harmonic:
d2^\flageolet d_\flageolet
A smaller circle may be created, see the snippet list in References for unfretted strings.
Artificial harmonics
Artificial harmonics are notated with two notes, one with a normal note head indicating the stopped position and one with an open diamond note head to indicate the harmonic position.
<e a\harmonic>2 <c g'\harmonic>
See also
Music Glossary: harmonics.
Notation Reference: Special note heads, References for unfretted strings.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Harmonics ] | [ Up : Common notation for unfretted strings ] | [ Fretted string instruments > ] |
Snap (Bartók) pizzicato
Selected Snippets
Snap-pizzicato markup ("Bartok pizzicato")
A snap-pizzicato (also known as "Bartok pizzicato") is a "strong pizzicato where the string is plucked vertically by snapping and rebounds off the fingerboard of the instrument" (Wikipedia). It is denoted by a cicle with a vertical line going from the center upwards outside the circle. While Lilypond does not have a pre-defined command to created this markup, it is easy to create a definition and place it directly into the lilypond file.
#(define-markup-command (snappizz layout props) () (interpret-markup layout props (markup #:stencil (ly:stencil-translate-axis (ly:stencil-add (make-circle-stencil 0.7 0.1 #f) (ly:make-stencil (list 'draw-line 0.1 0 0.1 0 1) '(-0.1 . 0.1) '(0.1 . 1))) 0.7 X)))) snapPizzicato = \markup \snappizz % now it can be used as \snappizzicato after the note/chord % Note that a direction (-, ^ or _) is required. \relative c' { c4^\snapPizzicato % This does NOT work: %<c e g>\snapPizzicato <c' e g>-\snapPizzicato <c' e g>^\snapPizzicato <c, e g>_\snapPizzicato }
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Snap (Bartok) pizzicato ] | [ Up : Specialist notation ] | [ Common notation for fretted strings > ] |
2.4 Fretted string instruments
This section discusses several aspects of music notation that are unique to fretted string instruments.
2.4.1 Common notation for fretted strings | ||
2.4.2 Guitar | ||
2.4.3 Banjo |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Fretted string instruments ] | [ Up : Fretted string instruments ] | [ References for fretted strings > ] |
2.4.1 Common notation for fretted strings
This section discusses common notation that is unique to fretted string instruments.
References for fretted strings | ||
String number indications | ||
Default tablatures | ||
Custom tablatures | ||
Fret diagram markups | ||
Predefined fret diagrams | ||
Automatic fret diagrams | ||
Right-hand fingerings |
References for fretted strings
Music for fretted string instruments is normally notated on
a single staff, either in traditional music notation or in
tablature. Sometimes the two types are combined, and it is
especially common in popular music to use chord diagrams above
a staff of traditional notation. The guitar and the banjo are
transposing instruments, sounding an octave lower than written.
Scores for these instruments should use the "treble_8"
clef.
Some other elements pertinent to fretted string instruments
are covered elsewhere:
- Fingerings are indicated as shown in Fingering instructions.
- Instructions for Laissez vibrer ties as well as ties on arpeggios and tremolos can be found in Ties.
- Instructions for handling multiple voices can be found in Collision resolution.
- Instructions for indicating harmonics can be found in Harmonics.
See also
Notation Reference: Fingering instructions, Ties, Collision resolution, Instrument names, Writing music in parallel, Arpeggio, List of articulations, Clef.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < References for fretted strings ] | [ Up : Common notation for fretted strings ] | [ Default tablatures > ] |
String number indications
The string on which a note should be played may be indicated by
appending \number
to a note inside a chord construct
<>
.
Note: String numbers must be defined inside a chord construct even if there is only a single note. |
\clef "treble_8" <c\5>4 <e\4> <g\3>2 <c,\5 e\4 g\3>1
When fingerings and string indications are used together, their placement is controlled by the order in which the two items appear in the code:
\clef "treble_8" <g\3-0>2 <g-0\3>
Selected Snippets
Controlling the placement of chord fingerings
The placement of fingering numbers can be controlled precisely.
\relative c' { \set fingeringOrientations = #'(left) <c-1 e-3 a-5>4 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(down) <c-1 e-3 a-5>4 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(down right up) <c-1 e-3 a-5>4 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(up) <c-1 e-3 a-5>4 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(left) <c-1>2 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(down) <e-3>2 }
Allowing fingerings to be printed inside the staff
By default, vertically oriented fingerings are positioned outside the staff. However, this behavior can be canceled.
\relative c' { <c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5>2 \once \override Fingering #'staff-padding = #'() <c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5>2 }
See also
Notation Reference: Fingering instructions.
Snippets: Fretted strings.
Internals Reference: StringNumber, Fingering.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < String number indications ] | [ Up : Common notation for fretted strings ] | [ Custom tablatures > ] |
Default tablatures
Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string instruments. Pitches are not denoted with note heads, but by numbers indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond offers limited support for tablature.
The string number associated with a note is given as a backslash
followed by a number. By default, string 1 is the highest,
and the tuning defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings).
The notes are printed as tablature, by using TabStaff
and
TabVoice
contexts
\new TabStaff { a,4\5 c'\2 a\3 e'\1 e\4 c'\2 a\3 e'\1 }
When no string is specified for a note, the note is assigned to
the highest string that can generate the note with a fret number
greater than or equal to the value of minimumFret
.
The default value for minimumFret
is 0.
\new StaffGroup << \new Staff \relative c { \clef "treble_8" c16 d e f g4 c,16 d e f g4 } \new TabStaff \relative c { c16 d e f g4 \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #5 c,16 d e f g4 } >>
Harmonic indications and slides can be added to tablature notation.
\new TabStaff { \new TabVoice { <c g'\harmonic> d\2\glissando e\2 } }
Selected Snippets
Stem and beam behavior in tablature
The direction of stems is controlled the same way in tablature as in traditional notation. Beams can be made horizontal, as shown in this example.
\new TabStaff { \relative c { g16 b d g b d g b \stemDown \override Beam #'damping = #+inf.0 g,,16 b d g b d g b } }
Polyphony in tablature
Polyphony is created the same way in a TabStaff
as in a regular
staff.
upper = \relative c' { \time 12/8 \key e \minor \voiceOne r4. r8 e, fis g16 b g e e' b c b a g fis e } lower = \relative c { \key e \minor \voiceTwo r16 e d c b a g4 fis8 e fis g a b c } \score { << \new StaffGroup = "tab with traditional" << \new Staff = "guitar traditional" << \clef "treble_8" \context Voice = "upper" \upper \context Voice = "lower" \lower >> \new TabStaff = "guitar tab" << \context TabVoice = "upper" \upper \context TabVoice = "lower" \lower >> >> >> }
See also
Notation Reference: Stems.
Snippets: Fretted strings.
Internals Reference: TabNoteHead, TabStaff, TabVoice, Beam.
Known issues and warnings
Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic string selector may easily select the same string for two notes in a chord.
In order to handle \partcombine
, a TabStaff
must use
specially-created voices:
melodia = \partcombine { e4 g g g }{ e4 e e e } << \new TabStaff << \new TabVoice = "one" s1 \new TabVoice = "two" s1 \new TabVoice = "shared" s1 \new TabVoice = "solo" s1 { \melodia } >> >>
Guitar special effects are limited to harmonics and slides.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Default tablatures ] | [ Up : Common notation for fretted strings ] | [ Fret diagram markups > ] |
Custom tablatures
LilyPond tabulature automatically calculates the fret for
a note based on the string to which the note is assigned.
In order to do this, the tuning of the strings must be
specified. The tuning of the strings is given in the
StringTunings
property.
LilyPond comes with predefined string tunings for banjo, mandolin, guitar and bass guitar. Lilypond automatically sets the correct transposition for predefined tunings. The following example is for bass guitar, which sounds an octave lower than written.
<< \new Staff { \clef "bass_8" \relative c, { c4 d e f } } \new TabStaff { \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #bass-tuning \relative c, { c4 d e f } } >>
The default string tuning is guitar-tuning
, which
is the standard EADGBE tuning. Some other predefined tunings are
guitar-open-g-tuning
, mandolin-tuning
and
banjo-open-g-tuning
. The predefined string tunings
are found in scm/output-lib.scm
.
A string tuning is a Scheme list of string pitches, one for each string, ordered by string number from 1 to N, where string 1 is at the top of the tablature staff and string N is at the bottom. This ordinarily results in ordering from highest pitch to lowest pitch, but some instruments (e.g. ukulele) do not have strings ordered by pitch.
A string pitch in a string tuning list is the pitch difference of the open string from middle C measured in semitones. The string pitch must be an integer. Lilypond calculates the actual pitch of the string by adding the string tuning pitch to the actual pitch for middle C.
LilyPond automatically calculates the number of strings in the
TabStaff
as the number of elements in stringTunings
.
Any desired string tuning can be created. For example, we can
define a string tuning for a four-string instrument with pitches
of a''
, d''
, g'
, and c'
:
mynotes = { c'4 e' g' c'' | e'' g'' b'' c''' } << \new Staff { \clef treble \mynotes } \new TabStaff { \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(21 14 7 0) \mynotes } >>
See also
Installed Files: ‘scm/output-lib.scm’.
Snippets: Fretted strings.
Internals Reference: Tab_note_heads_engraver.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Custom tablatures ] | [ Up : Common notation for fretted strings ] | [ Predefined fret diagrams > ] |
Fret diagram markups
Fret diagrams can be added to music as a markup to the desired note. The markup contains information about the desired fret diagram. There are three different fret-diagram markup interfaces: standard, terse, and verbose. The three interfaces produce equivalent markups, but have varying amounts of information in the markup string. Details about the markup interfaces are found at Text markup commands.
The standard fret diagram markup string indicates the string number and the fret number for each dot to be placed on the string. In addition, open and unplayed (muted) strings can be indicated.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { c1 d:m } } \context Staff { \clef "treble_8" < c e g c' e' > 1 ^\markup \fret-diagram #"6-x;5-3;4-2;3-o;2-1;1-o;" < d a d' f'> ^\markup \fret-diagram #"6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-1;" } >>
Barre indications can be added to the diagram from the fret-diagram markup string.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { f1 g } } \context Staff { \clef "treble_8" < f, c f a c' f'>1 ^\markup \fret-diagram #"c:6-1-1;6-1;5-3;4-3;3-2;2-1;1-1;" < g, d g b d' g'> ^\markup \fret-diagram #"c:6-1-3;6-3;5-5;4-5;3-4;2-3;1-3;" } >>
The size of the fret diagram, and the number of frets in the diagram can be changed in the fret-diagram markup string.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { f1 g } } \context Staff { \clef "treble_8" < f, c f a c' f'>1 ^\markup \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;c:6-1-1;6-1;5-3;4-3;3-2;2-1;1-1;" < g, b, d g b g'> ^\markup \fret-diagram #"h:6;6-3;5-2;4-o;3-o;2-o;1-3;" } >>
The number of strings in a fret diagram can be changed to accomodate different instruments such as banjos and ukeleles with the fret-diagram markup string.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { a1 } } \context Staff { %% A chord for ukelele a'1 ^\markup \fret-diagram #"w:4;4-2-2;3-1-1;2-o;1-o;" } >>
Fingering indications can be added, and the location of fingering labels can be controlled by the fret-diagram markup string.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { c1 d:m } } \context Staff { \clef "treble_8" < c e g c' e' > 1 ^\markup \fret-diagram #"f:1;6-x;5-3-3;4-2-2;3-o;2-1-1;1-o;" < d a d' f'> ^\markup \fret-diagram #"f:2;6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2-2;2-3-3;1-1-1;" } >>
Dot radius and dot position can be controlled with the fret-diagram markup string.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { c1 d:m } } \context Staff { \clef "treble_8" < c e g c' e' > 1 ^\markup \fret-diagram #"d:0.35;6-x;5-3;4-2;3-o;2-1;1-o;" < d a d' f'> ^\markup \fret-diagram #"p:0.2;6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-1;" } >>
The fret-diagram-terse markup string omits string numbers; the string number is implied by the presence of semicolons. There is one semicolon for each string in the diagram. The first semicolon corresponds to the highest string number and the last semicolon corresponds to the first string. Mute strings, open strings, and fret numbers can be indicated.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { c1 d:m } } \context Staff { \clef "treble_8" < c e g c' e' > 1 ^\markup \fret-diagram-terse #"x;3;2;o;1;o;" < d a d' f'> ^\markup \fret-diagram-terse #"x;x;o;2;3;1;" } >>
Barre indicators can be included in the fret-diagram-terse markup string.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { f1 g } } \context Staff { \clef "treble_8" < f, c f a c' f'>1 ^\markup \fret-diagram-terse #"1-(;3;3;2;1;1-);" < g, d g b d' g'> ^\markup \fret-diagram-terse #"3-(;5;5;4;3;3-);" } >>
Fingering indications can be included in the fret-diagram-terse markup string.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { c1 d:m } } \context Staff { \override Voice.TextScript #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'below-string \clef "treble_8" < c e g c' e' > 1 ^\markup \fret-diagram-terse #"x;3-3;2-2;o;1-1;o;" < d a d' f'> ^\markup \fret-diagram-terse #"x;x;o;2-2;3-3;1-1;" } >>
Other fret diagram properties must be adjusted using \override
when using
the fret-diagram-terse markup.
The fret-diagram-verbose markup string is in the format of a Scheme list. Each element of the list indicates an item to be placed on the fret diagram.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { c1 d:m } } \context Staff { \clef "treble_8" < c e g c' e' > 1 ^\markup \fret-diagram-verbose #'( (mute 6) (place-fret 5 3) (place-fret 4 2) (open 3) (place-fret 2 1) (open 1) ) < d a d' f'> ^\markup \fret-diagram-verbose #'( (mute 6) (mute 5) (open 4) (place-fret 3 2) (place-fret 2 3) (place-fret 1 1) ) } >>
Fingering indications and barres can be included in a fret-diagram-verbose markup string. Unique to the fret-diagram-verbose interface is a capo indication that can be placed on the fret diagram. The capo indication is a thick bar that covers all strings. The fret with the capo will be the lowest fret in the fret diagram.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { f1 g c } } \context Staff { \clef "treble_8" \override Voice.TextScript #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'below-string < f, c f a c' f'>1 ^\markup \fret-diagram-verbose #'( (place-fret 6 1) (place-fret 5 3) (place-fret 4 3) (place-fret 3 2) (place-fret 2 1) (place-fret 1 1) (barre 6 1 1) ) < g, b, d g b g'> ^\markup \fret-diagram-verbose #'( (place-fret 6 3 2) (place-fret 5 2 1) (open 4) (open 3) (open 2) (place-fret 1 3 3) ) < c e g c' e'> ^\markup \fret-diagram-verbose #'( (capo 3) (mute 6) (place-fret 4 5 1) (place-fret 3 5 2) (place-fret 2 5 3) ) } >>
All other fret diagram properties must be adjusted using \override
when using the fret-diagram-verbose markup.
The graphical layout of a fret diagram can be customized according to
user preference through the properties of the fret-diagram-interface
.
Details are found at
fret-diagram-interface. For a fret diagram
markup, the interface properties belong to Voice.TextScript
.
Selected Snippets
Customizing markup fret diagrams
Fret diagram properties can be set through
'fret-diagram-details
. For markup fret diagrams, overrides
can be applied to the Voice.TextScript
object or directly
to the markup.
<< \chords { c1 c c d } \new Voice = "mel" { \textLengthOn % Set global properties of fret diagram \override TextScript #'size = #'1.2 \override TextScript #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'in-dot \override TextScript #'(fret-diagram-details dot-color) = #'white %% C major for guitar, no barre, using defaults % terse style c'1^\markup { \fret-diagram-terse #"x;3-3;2-2;o;1-1;o;" } %% C major for guitar, barred on third fret % verbose style % size 1.0 % roman fret label, finger labels below string, straight barre c'1^\markup { % standard size \override #'(size . 1.0) { \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-lower) (finger-code . in-dot) (barre-type . straight))) { \fret-diagram-verbose #'((mute 6) (place-fret 5 3 1) (place-fret 4 5 2) (place-fret 3 5 3) (place-fret 2 5 4) (place-fret 1 3 1) (barre 5 1 3)) } } } %% C major for guitar, barred on third fret % verbose style % landscape orientation, arabic numbers, M for mute string % no barre, fret label down or left, small mute label font c'1^\markup { \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (finger-code . below-string) (number-type . arabic) (label-dir . -1) (mute-string . "M") (orientation . landscape) (barre-type . none) (xo-font-magnification . 0.4) (xo-padding . 0.3))) { \fret-diagram-verbose #'((mute 6) (place-fret 5 3 1) (place-fret 4 5 2) (place-fret 3 5 3) (place-fret 2 5 4) (place-fret 1 3 1) (barre 5 1 3)) } } %% simple D chord % terse style % larger dots, centered dots, fewer frets % label below string d'1^\markup { \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (finger-code . below-string) (dot-radius . 0.35) (dot-position . 0.5) (fret-count . 3))) { \fret-diagram-terse #"x;x;o;2-1;3-2;2-3;" } } } >>
See also
Notation Reference: Text markup commands.
Snippets: Fretted strings.
Internals Reference: fret-diagram-interface.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Fret diagram markups ] | [ Up : Common notation for fretted strings ] | [ Automatic fret diagrams > ] |
Predefined fret diagrams
Fret diagrams can be displayed using the FretBoards
context. By
default, the FretBoards
context will display fret diagrams that
are stored in a lookup table:
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly" \context FretBoards { \chordmode { c1 d } }
The default predefined fret diagrams are contained in the file
predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly
. Fret diagrams are
stored based on the pitches of a chord and the value of
stringTunings
that is currently in use.
predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly
contains predefined
fret diagrams only for guitar-tuning
. Predefined fret
diagrams can be added for other instruments or other tunings
by following the examples found in
predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly
.
Chord pitches can be entered either as simultaneous music or using chord mode (see Chord mode overview).
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly" \context FretBoards { \chordmode {c1} <c' e' g'>1 }
It is common that both chord names and fret diagrams are displayed together.
This is achieved by putting a ChordNames
context in parallel with
a FretBoards
context and giving both contexts the same music.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly" mychords = \chordmode{ c1 f g } << \context ChordNames { \mychords } \context FretBoards { \mychords } >>
Predefined fret diagrams are transposable, as long as a diagram for the transposed chord is stored in the fret diagram table.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly" mychords = \chordmode{ c1 f g } mychordlist = { \mychords \transpose c e { \mychords} } << \context ChordNames { \mychordlist } \context FretBoards { \mychordlist } >>
The predefined fret diagram table contains seven chords (major, minor, augmented, diminished, dominant seventh, major seventh, minor seventh) for each of 17 keys. A complete list of the predefined fret diagrams is shown in Predefined fretboard diagrams. If there is no entry in the table for a chord, the FretBoards engraver will calculate a fret-diagram using the automatic fret diagram functionality described in Automatic fret diagrams.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly" mychords = \chordmode{ c1 c:9 } << \context ChordNames { \mychords } \context FretBoards { \mychords } >>
Fret diagrams can be added to the fret diagram table. To add a diagram, you must specify the chord for the diagram, the tuning to be used, and a definition for the diagram. The diagram definition can be either a fret-diagram-terse definition string or a fret-diagram-verbose marking list.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly" \storePredefinedDiagram \chordmode {c:9} #guitar-tuning #"x;3-2;2-1;3-3;3-4;x;" mychords = \chordmode{ c1 c:9 } << \context ChordNames { \mychords } \context FretBoards { \mychords } >>
Different fret diagrams for the same chord name can be stored using different octaves of pitches.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly" \storePredefinedDiagram \chordmode {c'} #guitar-tuning #(offset-fret 2 (chord-shape 'bes guitar-tuning)) mychords = \chordmode{ c1 c' } << \context ChordNames { \mychords } \context FretBoards { \mychords } >>
In addition to fret diagrams, LilyPond stores an internal list of chord shapes. The chord shapes are fret diagrams that can be shifted along the neck to different posistions to provide different chords. Chord shapes can be added to the internal list and then used to define predefined fret diagrams. Because they can be moved to various positions on the neck, chord shapes will normally not contain any open strings. Like fret diagrams, chord shapes can be entered as either fret-diagram-terse strings or fret-diagram-verbose marking lists.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly" % add a new chord shape \addChordShape #'powerf #guitar-tuning #"1-1;3-3;3-4;x;x;x;" % add some new chords based on the power chord shape \storePredefinedDiagram \chordmode {f'} #guitar-tuning #(chord-shape 'powerf guitar-tuning) \storePredefinedDiagram \chordmode {g'} #guitar-tuning #(offset-fret 2 (chord-shape 'powerf guitar-tuning)) mychords = \chordmode{ f1 f' g g' } << \context ChordNames { \mychords } \context FretBoards { \mychords } >>
The graphical layout of a fret diagram can be customized according to
user preference through the properties of the fret-diagram-interface
.
Details are found at
fret-diagram-interface. For a
predefined fret diagram, the interface properties belong to
FretBoards.FretBoard
.
Selected Snippets
Customizing fretboard fret diagrams
Fret diagram properties can be set through
'fret-diagram-details
. For FretBoard fret diagrams,
overrides are applied to the FretBoards.FretBoard
object.
Like Voice
, FretBoards
is a bottom level context,
therefore can be omitted in property overrides.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly" \storePredefinedDiagram \chordmode { c' } #guitar-tuning #"x;1-1-(;3-2;3-3;3-4;1-1-);" << \new ChordNames { \chordmode { c1 c c d } } \new FretBoards { % Set global properties of fret diagram \override FretBoards.FretBoard #'size = #'1.2 \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'in-dot \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details dot-color) = #'white \chordmode { c \once \override FretBoard #'size = #'1.0 \once \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details barre-type) = #'straight \once \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details dot-color) = #'black \once \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'below-string c' \once \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details barre-type) = #'none \once \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details number-type) = #'arabic \once \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details orientation) = #'landscape \once \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details mute-string) = #"M" \once \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details label-dir) = #LEFT \once \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details dot-color) = #'black c' \once \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'below-string \once \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details dot-radius) = #0.35 \once \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details dot-position) = #0.5 \once \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details fret-count) = #3 d } } \new Voice { c'1 c' c' d' } >>
Defining predefined fretboards for other instruments Predefined fret diagrams can be added for new instruments in addition to the standards used for guitar. This file shows how this is done by defining a new string-tuning and a few predefined fretboards for the Venezuelan cuatro.
This file also shows how fingerings can be included in the chords
used as reference points for the chord lookup, and displayed in
the fret diagram and the TabStaff
, but not the music.
These fretboards are not transposable because they contain string information. This is planned to be corrected in the future.
% add FretBoards for the Cuatro % Note: This section could be put into a separate file % predefined-cuatro-fretboards.ly % and \included into each of your compositions cuatroTuning = #'(11 18 14 9) dSix = { <a\4 b\1 d\3 fis\2> } dMajor = { <a\4 d\1 d\3 fis \2> } aMajSeven = { <a\4 cis\1 e\3 g\2> } dMajSeven = { <a\4 c\1 d\3 fis\2> } gMajor = { <b\4 b\1 d\3 g\2> } \storePredefinedDiagram \dSix #cuatroTuning #"o;o;o;o;" \storePredefinedDiagram \dMajor #cuatroTuning #"o;o;o;3-3;" \storePredefinedDiagram \aMajSeven #cuatroTuning #"o;2-2;1-1;2-3;" \storePredefinedDiagram \dMajSeven #cuatroTuning #"o;o;o;1-1;" \storePredefinedDiagram \gMajor #cuatroTuning #"2-2;o;1-1;o;" % end of potential include file /predefined-cuatro-fretboards.ly #(set-global-staff-size 16) primerosNames = \chordmode { d:6 d a:maj7 d:maj7 g } primeros = { \dSix \dMajor \aMajSeven \dMajSeven \gMajor } \score { << \new ChordNames { \set chordChanges = ##t \primerosNames } \new Staff { \new Voice \with { \remove "New_fingering_engraver" } \relative c'' { \primeros } } \new FretBoards { \set stringTunings = #cuatroTuning \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details string-count) = #'4 \override FretBoard #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'in-dot \primeros } \new TabStaff \relative c'' { \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #cuatroTuning \primeros } >> \layout { \context { \Score \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 16) } } \midi { } }
See also
Notation Reference: Custom tablatures, Automatic fret diagrams, Chord mode overview, Predefined fretboard diagrams.
Installed Files: ‘ly/predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly’, ‘ly/predefined-guitar-ninth-fretboards.ly’.
Snippets: Fretted strings.
Internals Reference: fret-diagram-interface.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Predefined fret diagrams ] | [ Up : Common notation for fretted strings ] | [ Right-hand fingerings > ] |
Automatic fret diagrams
Fret diagrams can be automatically created from entered notes using the
FretBoards
context. If no predefined diagram is available for
the entered notes in the active stringTunings
, this context
calculates strings and frets that can be used to play the notes.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { f1 g } } \context FretBoards { < f, c f a c' f'>1 < g,\6 b, d g b g'> } \context Staff { \clef "treble_8" < f, c f a c' f'>1 < g, b, d g b' g'> } >>
As no predefined diagrams are loaded by default, automatic calculation of fret diagrams is the default behavior. Once default diagrams are loaded, automatic calculation can be enabled and disabled with predefined commands:
\storePredefinedDiagram <c e g c' e'> #guitar-tuning #"x;3-1-(;5-2;5-3;5-4;3-1-1);" << \context ChordNames { \chordmode { c1 c c } } \context FretBoards { <c e g c' e'>1 \predefinedFretboardsOff <c e g c' e'> \predefinedFretboardsOn <c e g c' e'> } \context Staff { \clef "treble_8" <c e g c' e'>1 <c e g c' e'> <c e g c' e'> } >>
Sometimes the fretboard calculator will be unable to find
an accceptable diagram. This can often be remedied by
manually assigning a note to a string. In many cases, only one
note need be manually placed on a string; the rest of
the notes will then be placed appropriately by the FretBoards
context.
Fingerings can be added to FretBoard fret diagrams.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { c1 d:m } } \context FretBoards { < c-3 e-2 g c'-1 e' > 1 < d a-2 d'-3 f'-1> } \context Staff { \clef "treble_8" < c e g c' e' > 1 < d a d' f'> } >>
The minimum fret to be used in calculating strings and frets for
the FretBoard context can be set with the minimumFret
property.
<< \context ChordNames { \chordmode { d1:m d:m } } \context FretBoards { < d a d' f'> \set FretBoards.minimumFret = #5 < d a d' f'> } \context Staff { \clef "treble_8" < d a d' f'> < d a d' f'> } >>
The strings and frets for the FretBoards
context depend
on the stringTunings
property, which has the same meaning
as in the TabStaff context. See Custom tablatures for
information on the stringTunings
property.
The graphical layout of a fret diagram can be customized according to
user preference through the properties of the fret-diagram-interface
.
Details are found at
fret-diagram-interface. For a
FretBoards
fret diagram, the interface properties belong to
FretBoards.FretBoard
.
Predefined commands
\predefinedFretboardsOff
,
\predefinedFretboardsOn
.
See also
Notation Reference: Custom tablatures.
Snippets: Fretted strings.
Internals Reference: fret-diagram-interface.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Automatic fret diagrams ] | [ Up : Common notation for fretted strings ] | [ Guitar > ] |
Right-hand fingerings
Right-hand fingerings p-i-m-a must be entered within a
chord construct <>
for them to be printed in the score,
even when applied to a single note.
Note: There must be a hyphen after the note and a space
before the closing |
\clef "treble_8" <c-\rightHandFinger #1 >4 <e-\rightHandFinger #2 > <g-\rightHandFinger #3 > <c-\rightHandFinger #4 > <c,-\rightHandFinger #1 e-\rightHandFinger #2 g-\rightHandFinger #3 c-\rightHandFinger #4 >1
For convenience, you can abbreviate \rightHandFinger
to something
short, for example RH
,
#(define RH rightHandFinger)
Selected Snippets
Placement of right-hand fingerings
It is possible to exercise greater control over the placement of right-hand fingerings by setting a specific property, as demonstrated in the following example.
#(define RH rightHandFinger) \relative c { \clef "treble_8" \set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(up down) <c-\RH #1 e-\RH #2 g-\RH #3 c-\RH #4 >4 \set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(up right down) <c-\RH #1 e-\RH #2 g-\RH #3 c-\RH #4 >4 \set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(left) <c-\RH #1 e-\RH #2 g-\RH #3 c-\RH #4 >2 }
Fingerings, string indications, and right-hand fingerings
This example combines left-hand fingering, string indications, and right-hand fingering.
#(define RH rightHandFinger) \relative c { \clef "treble_8" <c-3\5-\RH #1 >4 <e-2\4-\RH #2 >4 <g-0\3-\RH #3 >4 <c-1\2-\RH #4 >4 }
See also
Snippets: Fretted strings.
Internals Reference: StrokeFinger.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Right-hand fingerings ] | [ Up : Fretted string instruments ] | [ Indicating position and barring > ] |
2.4.2 Guitar
Most of the notational issues associated with guitar music are covered sufficiently in the general fretted strings section, but there are a few more worth covering here. Occasionally users want to create songbook-type documents having only lyrics with chord indications above them. Since Lilypond is a music typesetter, it is not recommended for documents that have no music notation in them. A better alternative is a word processor, text editor, or, for experienced users, a typesetter like GuitarTeX.
Indicating position and barring | ||
Indicating harmonics and dampened notes |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Guitar ] | [ Up : Guitar ] | [ Indicating harmonics and dampened notes > ] |
Indicating position and barring
This example demonstrates how to include guitar position and barring indications.
\clef "treble_8" b16 d g b e \textSpannerDown \override TextSpanner #'(bound-details left text) = #"XII " g16\startTextSpan b16 e g e b g\stopTextSpan e16 b g d
See also
Notation Reference: Text spanners.
Snippets: Fretted strings, Expressive marks.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Indicating position and barring ] | [ Up : Guitar ] | [ Banjo > ] |
Indicating harmonics and dampened notes
Special note heads can be used to indicate dampened notes or harmonics. Harmonics are normally further explained with a text markup.
\relative c' { \clef "treble_8" \override Staff.NoteHead #'style = #'cross g8 a b c b4 \override Staff.NoteHead #'style = #'harmonic-mixed d^\markup { \italic { \fontsize #-2 { "harm. 12" }}} <g b>1 }
See also
Snippets: Fretted strings.
Notation Reference: Special note heads, Note head styles.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Indicating harmonics and dampened notes ] | [ Up : Fretted string instruments ] | [ Banjo tablatures > ] |
2.4.3 Banjo
Banjo tablatures |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Banjo ] | [ Up : Banjo ] | [ Percussion > ] |
Banjo tablatures
LilyPond has basic support for the five-string banjo. When making tablatures for five-string banjo, use the banjo tablature format function to get correct fret numbers for the fifth string:
\new TabStaff << \set TabStaff.tablatureFormat = #fret-number-tablature-format-banjo \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #banjo-open-g-tuning { \stemDown g8 d' g'\5 a b g e d' | g4 d''8\5 b' a'\2 g'\5 e'\2 d' | g4 } >>
A number of common tunings for banjo are predefined in LilyPond:
banjo-c-tuning
(gCGBD), banjo-modal-tuning
(gDGCD),
banjo-open-d-tuning
(aDF#AD) and banjo-open-dm-tuning
(aDFAD).
These tunings may be converted to four-string banjo tunings using the
four-string-banjo
function:
\set TabStaff.stringTunings = #(four-string-banjo banjo-c-tuning)
See also
Snippets: Fretted strings.
The file ‘scm/output-lib.scm’ contains predefined banjo tunings.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Banjo tablatures ] | [ Up : Specialist notation ] | [ Common notation for percussion > ] |
2.5 Percussion
2.5.1 Common notation for percussion |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Percussion ] | [ Up : Percussion ] | [ References for percussion > ] |
2.5.1 Common notation for percussion
Rhythmic music is primarily used for percussion and drum notation, but it can also be used to show the rhythms of melodies.
References for percussion | ||
Basic percussion notation | ||
Drum rolls | ||
Pitched percussion | ||
Percussion staves | ||
Custom percussion staves | ||
Ghost notes |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Common notation for percussion ] | [ Up : Common notation for percussion ] | [ Basic percussion notation > ] |
References for percussion
TODO add more.
- Some percussion may be notated on a rhythmic staff; this is discussed in Showing melody rhythms, and Instantiating new staves.
- MIDI output is discussed in a separate section; please see Percussion in MIDI.
See also
Notation Reference: Showing melody rhythms, Instantiating new staves. Percussion in MIDI.
Snippets: Percussion.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < References for percussion ] | [ Up : Common notation for percussion ] | [ Drum rolls > ] |
Basic percussion notation
Percussion notes may be entered in \drummode
mode, which is
similar to the standard mode for entering notes. The simplest way
to enter percussion notes is to use the \drums
command,
which creates the correct context and entry mode for percussion:
\drums { hihat4 hh bassdrum bd }
This is shorthand for:
\new DrumStaff { \drummode { hihat4 hh bassdrum bd } }
Each piece of percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and both can be used in input files. The full list of percussion note names may be found in Percussion notes.
Note that the normal notation of pitches (such as cis4
) in
a DrumStaff
context will cause an error message.
Percussion clefs are added automatically to a DrumStaff
contex, but other clefs may also be used.
There are a few issues concerning MIDI support for percussion instruments; for details please see Percussion in MIDI.
See also
Notation Reference: Percussion in MIDI, Percussion notes.
File: ‘ly/drumpitch-init.ly’
Snippets: Percussion.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Basic percussion notation ] | [ Up : Common notation for percussion ] | [ Pitched percussion > ] |
Drum rolls
Drum rolls are indicated with three slashes across the stem. For
quarter notes or longer the three slashes are shown explicitly,
eighth notes are shown with two slashes (the beam being the
third), and drum rolls shorter than eighths have one stem slash to
supplement the beams. This is achieved with the tremolo notation,
:32
, as described in Tremolo repeats. Here is an
example of some snare rolls:
\drums { \time 2/4 sn16 sn8 sn16 sn8 sn8:32 ~ sn8 sn8 sn4:32 ~ sn4 sn8 sn16 sn16 sn4 r4 }
Sticking can be indicated by placing ^"R"
or ^"L"
after the note. The staff-padding
property may be
overridden to achieve a pleasing baseline.
\drums { \repeat unfold 2 { sn16 ^"L" sn^"R" sn^"L" sn^"L" sn^"R" sn^"L" sn^"R" sn^"R" } }
See also
Snippets: Percussion.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Drum rolls ] | [ Up : Common notation for percussion ] | [ Percussion staves > ] |
Pitched percussion
Certain pitched percussion instruments (e.g. xylophone, vibraphone, and timpani) are written using normal staves. This is covered in other sections of the manual.
See also
Notation Reference: Percussion in MIDI.
Snippets: Percussion.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Pitched percussion ] | [ Up : Common notation for percussion ] | [ Custom percussion staves > ] |
Percussion staves
A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a
multiline staff where each position in the staff refers to one
piece of percussion. To typeset the music, the notes must be
interpreted in DrumStaff
and DrumVoice
context.
up = \drummode { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat } down = \drummode { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 } \new DrumStaff << \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up } \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down } >>
The above example shows verbose polyphonic notation. The short polyphonic notation, described in I'm hearing Voices, can also be used if the voices are instantiated by hand first. For example,
\new DrumStaff << \new DrumVoice = "1" { s1*2 } \new DrumVoice = "2" { s1*2 } \drummode { bd4 sn4 bd4 sn4 << { \repeat unfold 16 hh16 } \\ { bd4 sn4 bd4 sn4 } >> } >>
There are also other layout possibilities. To use these, set the
property drumStyleTable
in context DrumVoice
. The
following variables have been predefined:
-
drums-style
This is the default. It typesets a typical drum kit on a five-line staff:
The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there are fewer toms, simply select the toms that produce the desired result. For example, to get toms on the three middle lines you use
tommh
,tomml
, andtomfh
.-
timbales-style
This typesets timbales on a two line staff:
-
congas-style
This typesets congas on a two line staff:
-
bongos-style
This typesets bongos on a two line staff:
-
percussion-style
To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves:
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Percussion staves ] | [ Up : Common notation for percussion ] | [ Ghost notes > ] |
Custom percussion staves
If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own list at the top of your file.
#(define mydrums '( (bassdrum default #f -1) (snare default #f 0) (hihat cross #f 1) (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" 2) (lowtom diamond #f 3))) up = \drummode { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp } down = \drummode { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml } \new DrumStaff << \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums) \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up } \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down } >>
Selected Snippets
FIXME: MOVE ALL THESE TO LSR! -gp
Here are some examples:
Two Woodblocks, entered with wbh (high woodblock) and wbl (low woodblock)
% These lines define the position of the woodblocks in the stave; % if you like, you can change it or you can use special note heads % for the woodblocks. #(define mydrums '((hiwoodblock default #t 3) (lowoodblock default #t -2))) woodstaff = { % This defines a staff with only two lines. % It also defines the positions of the two lines. \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-positions = #'(-2 3) % This is neccessary; if not entered, the barline would be too short! \override Staff.BarLine #'bar-size = #3 } \new DrumStaff { \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums) % with this you load your new drum style table \woodstaff \drummode { \time 2/4 wbl8 wbl16 wbl wbh8-> wbl | wbl8 wbl16 wbh-> ~ wbh wbl16 r8 | } }
Note that in this special case the length of the barline must
altered with \override Staff.BarLine #'bar-size #number
.
Otherwise it would be too short. And you have also to define the
positions of the two stafflines. For more information about these
delicate things have a look at Staff symbol.
A tambourine, entered with ‘tamb’:
#(define mydrums '((tambourine default #t 0))) tambustaff = { \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-positions = #'( 0 ) \override Staff.BarLine #'bar-size = #3 \set DrumStaff.instrumentName = #"Tambourine" } \new DrumStaff { \tambustaff \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums) \drummode { \time 6/8 tamb8. tamb16 tamb8 tamb tamb tamb | tamb4. tamb8 tamb tamb | % the trick with the scaled duration and the shorter rest % is neccessary for the correct ending of the trill-span! tamb2.*5/6 \startTrillSpan s8 \stopTrillSpan | } }
Music for Tam-Tam (entered with ‘tt’):
#(define mydrums '((tamtam default #t 0))) tamtamstaff = { \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-positions = #'( 0 ) \override Staff.BarLine #'bar-size = #3 \set DrumStaff.instrumentName = #"Tamtam" } \new DrumStaff { \tamtamstaff \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums) \drummode { tt 1 \pp \laissezVibrer } }
Two different bells, entered with ‘cb’ (cowbell) and ‘rb’ (ridebell)
#(define mydrums '((ridebell default #t 3) (cowbell default #t -2))) bellstaff = { \override DrumStaff.StaffSymbol #'line-positions = #'(-2 3) \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums) \override Staff.BarLine #'bar-size = #3 \set DrumStaff.instrumentName = #"Different Bells" } \new DrumStaff { \bellstaff \drummode { \time 2/4 rb8 rb cb cb16 rb-> ~ | rb16 rb8 rb16 cb8 cb | } }
Here an short example by maestro Stravinsky (from ‘L’histoire du Soldat’)
#(define mydrums '((bassdrum default #t 4) (snare default #t -4) (tambourine default #t 0))) global = { \time 3/8 s4. \time 2/4 s2*2 \time 3/8 s4. \time 2/4 s2 } drumsA = { \context DrumVoice << { \global } { \drummode { \autoBeamOff \stemDown sn8 \stemUp tamb s8 | sn4 \stemDown sn4 | \stemUp tamb8 \stemDown sn8 \stemUp sn16 \stemDown sn \stemUp sn8 | \stemDown sn8 \stemUp tamb s8 | \stemUp sn4 s8 \stemUp tamb } } >> } drumsB = { \drummode { s4 bd8 s2*2 s4 bd8 s4 bd8 s8 } } \layout { indent = #40 } \score { \new StaffGroup << \new DrumStaff { \set DrumStaff.instrumentName = \markup { \column { "Tambourine" "et" "caisse claire s. timbre" } } \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums) \drumsA } \new DrumStaff { \set DrumStaff.instrumentName = #"Grosse Caisse" \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums) \drumsB } >> }
See also
Snippets: Percussion.
Internals Reference: DrumStaff, DrumVoice.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Custom percussion staves ] | [ Up : Common notation for percussion ] | [ Wind instruments > ] |
Ghost notes
Ghost notes for drums and percussion may be created using the
\parenthesize
command detailed in Parentheses.
However, the default \drummode
does not include the
Parenthesis_engraver
plugin which allows this.
\new DrumStaff \with { \consists "Parenthesis_engraver" } << \context DrumVoice = "1" { s1 } \context DrumVoice = "2" { s1 } \drummode { << { hh8[ hh] <hh sn> hh16 < \parenthesize sn > hh < \parenthesize sn > hh8 <hh sn> hh } \\ { bd4 r4 bd8 bd r8 bd } >> } >>
Also note that you must add chords (< >
brackets)
around each \parenthesize
statement.
See also
Snippets: Percussion.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Ghost notes ] | [ Up : Specialist notation ] | [ Common notation for wind instruments > ] |
2.6 Wind instruments
This section includes some elements of music notation that arise when writing for winds.
2.6.1 Common notation for wind instruments | ||
2.6.2 Bagpipes |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Wind instruments ] | [ Up : Wind instruments ] | [ References for wind instruments > ] |
2.6.1 Common notation for wind instruments
This section discusses some issues common to most wind instruments.
References for wind instruments | ||
Fingerings |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Common notation for wind instruments ] | [ Up : Common notation for wind instruments ] | [ Fingerings > ] |
References for wind instruments
Many notation issues for wind instruments pertain to breathing and tonguing:
- Breathing can be specified by rests or Breath marks.
- Legato playing is indicated by Slurs.
- Different types of tonguings, ranging from legato to non-legato to stacatto are usually shown by articulation marks, sometimes combined with slurs, see Articulations and ornamentations and List of articulations.
- Flutter tonguing is usually indicated by placing a tremolo mark and a text markup on the note. See Tremolo repeats.
There are also other aspects of musical notation that can apply to wind instruments:
- Many wind instruments are transposing intruments, see Instrument transpositions.
- The slide glissando are characteristic of the trombone, but other winds may perform keyed or valved glissandi. See Glissando.
- Harmonic series glissandi, which are possible on all brass instruments but common for French Horns, are usually written out as Grace notes.
- Pitch inflections at the end of a note are discussed in Falls and doits.
- Key slaps or valve slaps are often shown by the
cross
style of Special note heads. - Woodwinds can overblow low notes to sound harmonics. These are
shown by the
flageolet
articulation. See List of articulations. - The use of brass mutes is usually indicated by a text markup, but
where there are many rapid changes it is better to use the
stopped
andopen
articulations. See Articulations and ornamentations and List of articulations. - Stopped horns are indicated by the
stopped
articulation. See Articulations and ornamentations.
Selected Snippets
Changing \flageolet mark size
To make the \flageolet
circle smaller use the following Scheme
function.
smallFlageolet = #(let ((m (make-music 'ArticulationEvent 'articulation-type "flageolet"))) (ly:music-set-property! m 'tweaks (acons 'font-size -3 (ly:music-property m 'tweaks))) m) \layout { ragged-right = ##f } \relative c'' { d4^\flageolet_\markup { default size } d_\flageolet c4^\smallFlageolet_\markup { smaller } c_\smallFlageolet }
See also
Notation Reference: Breath marks, Slurs, Articulations and ornamentations, List of articulations, Tremolo repeats, Instrument transpositions, Glissando, Grace notes, Falls and doits, Special note heads,
Snippets: Winds
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < References for wind instruments ] | [ Up : Common notation for wind instruments ] | [ Bagpipes > ] |
Fingerings
All wind instruments other than the trombone require the use of several fingers to produce each pitch.
TBC
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Fingerings ] | [ Up : Wind instruments ] | [ Bagpipe definitions > ] |
2.6.2 Bagpipes
This section includes extra information for writing for bagpipes.
Bagpipe definitions | ||
Bagpipe example |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Bagpipes ] | [ Up : Bagpipes ] | [ Bagpipe example > ] |
Bagpipe definitions
LilyPond contains special definitions for music for the Scottish highland bagpipe; to use them, add
\include "bagpipe.ly"
at the top of your input file. This lets you add the special grace notes
common to bagpipe music with short commands. For example, you could
write \taor
instead of
\grace { \small G32[ d G e] }
bagpipe.ly
also contains pitch definitions for the bagpipe
notes in the appropriate octaves, so you do not need to worry about
\relative
or \transpose
.
\include "bagpipe.ly" { \grg G4 \grg a \grg b \grg c \grg d \grg e \grg f \grA g A }
Bagpipe music nominally uses the key of D Major (even though that
isn’t really true). However, since that is the only key that can be used,
the key signature is normally not written out. To set this up correctly,
always start your music with \hideKeySignature
. If you for some
reason want to show the key signature, you can use \showKeySignature
instead.
Some modern music use cross fingering on c and f to flatten those notes.
This can be indicated by cflat
or fflat
. Similarly, the
piobaireachd high g can be written gflat
when it occurs in light
music.
See also
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Bagpipe definitions ] | [ Up : Bagpipes ] | [ Chord notation > ] |
Bagpipe example
This is what the well known tune Amazing Grace looks like in bagpipe notation.
\include "bagpipe.ly" \layout { indent = 0.0\cm \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" } } \header { title = "Amazing Grace" meter = "Hymn" arranger = "Trad. arr." } { \hideKeySignature \time 3/4 \grg \partial 4 a8. d16 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.] \grg f2 \grg f8 e \thrwd d2 \grg b4 \grG a2 \grg a8. d16 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.] \grg f2 \grg e8. f16 \dblA A2 \grg A4 \grg A2 f8. A16 \grg A2 \hdblf f8[ e32 d16.] \grg f2 \grg f8 e \thrwd d2 \grg b4 \grG a2 \grg a8. d16 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.] \grg f2 e4 \thrwd d2. \slurd d2 \bar "|." }
See also
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Bagpipe example ] | [ Up : Specialist notation ] | [ Chord mode > ] |
2.7 Chord notation
Chords can be entered either as normal notes or in chord mode and displayed using a variety of traditional European chord naming conventions. Chord names and figured bass notation can also be displayed.
2.7.1 Chord mode | ||
2.7.2 Displaying chords | ||
2.7.3 Figured bass |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Chord notation ] | [ Up : Chord notation ] | [ Chord mode overview > ] |
2.7.1 Chord mode
Chord mode is used to enter chords using an indicator of the chord structure, rather than the chord pitches.
Chord mode overview | ||
Common chords | ||
Extended and altered chords |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Chord mode ] | [ Up : Chord mode ] | [ Common chords > ] |
Chord mode overview
Chords can be entered as simultaneous music, as discussed in Chorded notes.
Chords can also be entered in “chord mode”, which is an input mode that focuses on the structures of chords in traditional European music, rather than on specific pitches. This is convenient for those who are familiar with using chord names to describe chords. More information on different input modes can be found at Input modes.
\chordmode { c1 g a g c }
Chords entered using chord mode are music elements, and can be transposed just like chords entered using simultaneous music.
Chord mode and note mode can be mixed in sequential music:
<c e g>2 <g b d> \chordmode { c2 f } <c e g>2 <g' b d> \chordmode { f2 g }
See also
Music Glossary: chord.
Notation Reference: Chorded notes, Input modes.
Snippets: Chords
Known issues and warnings
When chord mode and note mode are mixed in sequential music, and
chord mode comes first, the note mode will create a new Staff
context.
\chordmode { c2 f } <c e g>2 <g' b d>
To avoid this behavior, explicitly create the Staff
context:
\new Staff { \chordmode { c2 f } <c e g>2 <g' b d> }
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Chord mode overview ] | [ Up : Chord mode ] | [ Extended and altered chords > ] |
Common chords
Major triads are entered by including the root and an optional duration:
\chordmode { c2 f4 g }
Minor, augmented, and diminished triads are entered by placing
:
and a quality modifier string after the duration:
\chordmode { c2:m f4:aug g:dim }
Seventh chords can be created:
\chordmode { c1:7 c:m7 c:maj7 c:dim7 c:aug7 }
The table belows shows the actions of the quality modifiers on triads and seventh chords. The default seventh step added to chords is a minor or flatted seventh, which makes the dominant seventh the basic seventh chord. All alterations are relative to the dominant seventh. A more complete table of modifier usage is found at Common chord modifiers.
Modifier | Action | Example |
None | The default action; produces a major triad. | |
m, m7 | The minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd. | |
dim, dim7 | The diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present) the 7th step. | |
aug | The augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step. | |
maj, maj7 | The major 7th chord. This modifier adds a raised 7th step. The
|
See also
Notation Reference: Common chord modifiers, Extended and altered chords.
Snippets: Chords.
Known issues and warnings
Only one quality modifier should be used per chord, typically on the highest step present in the chord. Chords with more than quality modifier will be parsed without an error or warning, but the results are unpredictable. Chords that cannot be achieved with a single quality modifier should be altered by individual pitches, as described in Extended and altered chords.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Common chords ] | [ Up : Chord mode ] | [ Displaying chords > ] |
Extended and altered chords
Chord structures of arbitrary complexity can be created in chord mode. The modifier string can be used to extend a chord, add or remove chord steps, raise or lower chord steps, and add a bass note or create an inversion.
The first number following the :
is taken to be the extent
of the chord. The chord is constructed by sequentially adding
thirds to the root until the specified number has been reached.
Note that the seventh step added as part of an extended chord will be the
minor or flatted seventh, not the major seventh.
If the extent is not a third (e.g., 6), thirds are added up to the
highest third below the extent, and then the step of the extent is
added. The largest possible value for the extent is 13. Any
larger value is interpreted as 13.
\chordmode { c1:2 c:3 c:4 c:5 c1:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c1:10 c:11 c:12 c:13 c1:14 }
Note that both c:5
and c
produce a C major triad.
Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an
unaltered 13, the 11 is removed from a :13
chord (unless it
is added explicitly).
\chordmode { c1:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
Individual steps can be added to a chord. Additions follow the
extent and are prefixed by a dot (.
). The basic seventh
step added to a chord is the minor or flatted seventh, rather than
the major seventh.
\chordmode { c1:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
Added steps can be as high as desired.
\chordmode { c4:5.15 c:5.20 c:5.25 c:5.30 }
Added chord steps can be altered by suffixing a -
or +
sign to the number. To alter a step that is automatically included
as part of the basic chord structure, add it as an altered step.
\chordmode { c1:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
Following any steps to be added, a series of steps to be removed
is introduced in a modifier string with a prefix of ^
.
If more than one step is to be removed, the steps to be
removed are separated by .
following the
initial ^
.
\chordmode { c1^3 c:7^5 c:9^3 c:9^3.5 c:13.11^3.7 }
The modifier sus
can be added to the modifier string to
create suspended chords. This removes the 3rd step from the chord.
Append either 2
or 4
to add the 2nd or 4th step to the
chord. sus
is equivalent to ^3
; sus4
is
equivalent to .4^3
.
\chordmode { c1:sus c:sus2 c:sus4 c:5.4^3 }
Inversions (putting a pitch other than the root on the bottom of the
chord) and added bass notes can be specified by appending
/
pitch to the chord.
\chordmode { c1 c/g c/f }
A bass note that is part of the chord can be added, instead of
moved as part of an inversion, by using /+
pitch.
\chordmode { c1 c/g c/+g }
Chord modifiers that can be used to produce a variety of standard chords are shown in Common chord modifiers.
See also
Notation Reference: Common chord modifiers.
Snippets: Chords
Known issues and warnings
Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
simply produces the augmented chord, since 5+
is
interpreted last.
\chordmode { c1:5.5-.5+ }
Only the second inversion can be created by adding a bass note. The first inversion requires changing the root of the chord.
\chordmode { c'1: c':/g e:6-3-^5 e:m6-^5 }
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Extended and altered chords ] | [ Up : Chord notation ] | [ Printing chord names > ] |
2.7.2 Displaying chords
Chords can be displayed by name, in addition to the standard display as notes on a staff.
Printing chord names | ||
Customizing chord names |
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[ < Displaying chords ] | [ Up : Displaying chords ] | [ Customizing chord names > ] |
Printing chord names
Chord names are printed in the ChordNames
context:
\new ChordNames { \chordmode { c2 f4. g8 } }
Chords can be entered as simultaneous notes or through the use of chord mode. The displayed chord name will be the same, regardless of the mode of entry, unless there are inversions or added bass notes:
<< \new ChordNames { <c e g>2 <f bes c> <f c' e g>1 \chordmode { c2 f:sus4 c1:/f } } { <c e g>2 <f bes c> <f, c' e g>1 \chordmode { c2 f:sus4 c1:/f } } >>
\chords { ... }
is a shortcut notation for
\new ChordNames { \chordmode { ... } }
.
\chords { c2 f4.:m g8:maj7 }
\new ChordNames { \chordmode { c2 f4.:m g8:maj7 } }
Selected Snippets
Showing chords at changes
Chord names can be displayed only at the start of lines and when the chord changes.
harmonies = \chordmode { c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d } << \new ChordNames { \set chordChanges = ##t \harmonies } \new Staff { \relative c' { \harmonies } } >>
Simple lead sheet
When put together, chord names, a melody, and lyrics form a lead sheet:
<< \chords { c2 g:sus4 f e } \relative c'' { a4 e c8 e r4 b2 c4( d) } \addlyrics { One day this shall be free __ } >>
See also
Music Glossary: chord.
Notation Reference: Writing music in parallel.
Snippets: Chords.
Internals Reference: ChordNames, ChordName, Chord_name_engraver, Volta_engraver, Bar_engraver.
Known issues and warnings
Chords containing inversions or altered bass notes are not named properly if entered using simultaneous music.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Printing chord names ] | [ Up : Displaying chords ] | [ Figured bass > ] |
Customizing chord names
There is no unique system for naming chords. Different musical traditions use different names for the same set of chords. There are also different symbols displayed for a given chord name. The names and symbols displayed for chord names are customizable.
The basic chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by Klaus Ignatzek (see Literature list). The chord naming system can be modified as described below. An alternate jazz chord system has been developed using these modifications. The Ignatzek and alternate Jazz notation are shown on the chart in Chord name chart.
In addition to the different naming systems, different note names
are used for the root in different languages. The predefined
variables \germanChords
, \semiGermanChords
,
\italianChords
and \frenchChords
set these variables.
The effect is demonstrated here:
If none of the existing settings give the desired output, the chord name display can be tuned through the following properties.
-
chordRootNamer
-
The chord name is usually printed as a letter for the root with an optional alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this function. Special note names (for example, the German ‘H’ for a B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.
-
majorSevenSymbol
-
This property contains the markup object used to follow the output of
chordRootNamer
to identify a major 7 chord. Predefined options arewhiteTriangleMarkup
andblackTriangleMarkup
. -
chordNoteNamer
-
When the chord name contains additional pitches other than the root (e.g., an added bass note), this function is used to print the additional pitch. By default the pitch is printed using
chordRootNamer
. ThechordNoteNamer
property can be set to a specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the bass note can be printed in lower case. -
chordNameSeparator
-
Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a slash. By setting
chordNameSeparator
, you can use any desired markup for a separator. -
chordNameExceptions
-
This property is a list of pairs. The first item in each pair is a set of pitches used to identify the steps present in the chord. The second item is a markup that will follow the
chordRootNamer
output to create the chord name. -
chordPrefixSpacer
-
The ‘m’ for minor chords is usually printed immediately to the right of the root of the chord. A spacer can be placed between the root and ‘m’ by setting
chordPrefixSpacer
. The spacer is not used when the root is altered.
Predefined commands
\whiteTriangleMarkup
,
\blackTriangleMarkup
,
\germanChords
,
\semiGermanChords
,
\italianChords
,
\frenchChords
.
Selected Snippets
Chord name exceptions
The property chordNameExceptions
can be used to store a list of
special notations for specific chords.
% modify maj9 and 6(add9) % Exception music is chords with markups chExceptionMusic = { <c e g b d'>1-\markup { \super "maj9" } <c e g a d'>1-\markup { \super "6(add9)" } } % Convert music to list and prepend to existing exceptions. chExceptions = #( append ( sequential-music-to-chord-exceptions chExceptionMusic #t) ignatzekExceptions) theMusic = \chordmode { g1:maj9 g1:6.9 \set chordNameExceptions = #chExceptions g1:maj9 g1:6.9 } \layout { ragged-right = ##t } << \context ChordNames \theMusic \context Voice \theMusic >>
chord name major7
The layout of the major 7 can be tuned with majorSevenSymbol
.
\chords { c:7+ \set majorSevenSymbol = \markup { j7 } c:7+ }
Adding bar lines to ChordNames context
To add bar line indications in the ChordNames
context, add the
Bar_engraver
.
\new ChordNames \with { \override BarLine #'bar-size = #4 \consists "Bar_engraver" } \chordmode { f1:maj7 f:7 bes:7 }
Volta under chords
By adding the Volta_engraver
to the relevant
staff, volte can be put under chords.
\score { << \chords { c1 c1 } \new Staff \with { \consists "Volta_engraver" } { \repeat volta 2 { c'1 } \alternative { c' } } >> \layout { \context { \Score \remove "Volta_engraver" } } }
Changing chord separator
The separator between different parts of a chord name can be set to any markup.
\chords { c:7sus4 \set chordNameSeparator = \markup { \typewriter | } c:7sus4 }
See also
Notation Reference: Chord name chart, Common chord modifiers.
Installed Files: ‘scm/chords-ignatzek.scm’, ‘scm/chord-entry.scm’, ‘ly/chord-modifier-init.ly’.
Snippets: Chords.
Known issues and warnings
Chord names are determined from both the pitches that are present
in the chord and the information on the chord structure that may
have been entered in \chordmode
. If the simultaneous pitches
method of entering chords is used, undesired names result from
inversions or bass notes.
myChords = \relative c' { \chordmode { c1 c/g c/f } <c e g>1 <g c e> <f c' e g> } << \new ChordNames { \myChords } \new Staff { \myChords } >>
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Customizing chord names ] | [ Up : Chord notation ] | [ Introduction to figured bass > ] |
2.7.3 Figured bass
Figured bass notation can be displayed.
Introduction to figured bass | ||
Entering figured bass | ||
Displaying figured bass |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Figured bass ] | [ Up : Figured bass ] | [ Entering figured bass > ] |
Introduction to figured bass
LilyPond has support for figured bass, also called thorough bass or basso continuo:
<< \new Voice { \clef bass dis4 c d ais g fis} \new FiguredBass { \figuremode { < 6 >4 < 7\+ >8 < 6+ [_!] > < 6 >4 <6 5 [3+] > < _ >4 < 6 5/>4 } } >>
The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an
input mode, introduced by \figuremode
, that accepts
entry of bass figures, and there is a context named
FiguredBass
that takes care of displaying
BassFigure
objects. Figured bass can also be displayed
in Staff
contexts.
\figures{ ... }
is a shortcut notation for
\new FiguredBass { \figuremode { ... } }
.
Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
support, it is much simpler. \figuremode
mode simply
stores the figures and the FiguredBass
context prints them
as entered. There is no conversion to pitches.
See also
Music Glossary: figured bass.
Snippets: Chords
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Introduction to figured bass ] | [ Up : Figured bass ] | [ Displaying figured bass > ] |
Entering figured bass
\figuremode
is used to switch the input mode to figure mode.
More information on different input modes can be
found at Input modes.
In figure mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
<
and >
. The duration is entered after the >
.
\new FiguredBass { \figuremode { <6 4>2 } }
Accidentals (including naturals) can be added to figures:
\figures { <7! 6+ 4-> <5++> <3--> }
Augmented and diminished steps can be indicated:
\figures { <6\+ 5/> <7/> }
A backward slash through a figure (typically used for raised sixth steps) can be created:
\figures { <6> <6\\> }
Vertical spaces and brackets can be be included in figures:
\figures { <[12 _!] 8 [6 4]> }
Any text markup can be inserted as a figure:
\figures { <\markup { \tiny \number 6 \super (1) } 5> }
Continuation lines can be used to indicate repeated figures:
<< { \clef bass e4 d c b, e4 d c b, } \figures { \bassFigureExtendersOn <6 4>4 <6 3> <7 3> <7 3> \bassFigureExtendersOff <6 4>4 <6 3> <7 3> <7 3> } >>
In this case, the extender lines replace existing figures, unless the continuation lines have been explicitly terminated.
<< \figures { \bassFigureExtendersOn <6 4>4 <6 4> <6\! 4\!> <6 4> } { \clef bass d4 d c c } >>
The table below summarizes the figure modifiers available.
Modifier | Purpose | Example |
+, -, ! | Accidentals | |
\+, / | Augmented and diminished steps | |
\\ | Raised sixth step | |
\! | End of continuation line |
Predefined commands
\bassFigureExtendersOn
,
\bassFigureExtendersOff
.
Selected Snippets
Changing the positions of figured bass alterations
Accidentals and plus signs can appear before or after the numbers,
depending on the figuredBassAlterationDirection
and
figuredBassPlusDirection
properties.
\figures { <6\+> <5+> <6 4-> r \set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #RIGHT <6\+> <5+> <6 4-> r \set figuredBassPlusDirection = #RIGHT <6\+> <5+> <6 4-> r \set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #LEFT <6\+> <5+> <6 4-> r }
See also
Snippets: Chords.
Internals Reference: BassFigure, BassFigureAlignment, BassFigureLine, BassFigureBracket, BassFigureContinuation, FiguredBass.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Entering figured bass ] | [ Up : Figured bass ] | [ Ancient notation > ] |
Displaying figured bass
Figured bass can be displayed using the FiguredBass
context,
or in most staff contexts.
When displayed in a FiguredBass
context, the vertical location
of the figures is independent of the notes on the staff.
<< \relative c'' { c4 c'8 r8 c,4 c' } \new FiguredBass { \figuremode { <4>4 <10 6>8 s8 <6 4>4 <6 4> } } >>
In the example above, the FiguredBass
context must be
explicitly instantiated to avoid creating a second (empty) staff.
Figured bass can also be added to Staff
contexts
directly. In this case, the vertical position of the
figures is adjusted automatically.
<< \new Staff = myStaff \figuremode { <4>4 <10 6>8 s8 <6 4>4 <6 4> } %% Put notes on same Staff as figures \context Staff = myStaff { \clef bass c4 c'8 r8 c4 c' } >>
When added in a Staff
context, figured bass can be displayed above
or below the staff.
<< \new Staff = myStaff \figuremode { <4>4 <10 6>8 s8 \bassFigureStaffAlignmentDown <6 4>4 <6 4> } %% Put notes on same Staff as figures \context Staff = myStaff { \clef bass c4 c'8 r8 c4 c' } >>
Predefined commands
\bassFigureStaffAlignmentDown
,
\bassFigureStaffAlignmentUp
,
\bassFigureStaffAlignmentNeutral
.
See also
Snippets: Chords.
Internals Reference: BassFigure, BassFigureAlignment, BassFigureLine, BassFigureBracket, BassFigureContinuation, FiguredBass.
Known issues and warnings
To ensure that continuation lines work properly, it is safest to use the same rhythm in the figure line as in the bass line.
<< { \clef bass \repeat unfold 4 { f16. g32 } f8. es16 d8 es } \figures { \bassFigureExtendersOn % The extenders are correct here, with the same rhythm as the bass \repeat unfold 4 { <6 4->16. <6 4->32 } <5>8. r16 <6>8 <6\! 5-> } >> << { \clef bass \repeat unfold 4 { f16. g32 } f8. es16 d8 es } \figures { \bassFigureExtendersOn % The extenders are incorrect here, even though the timing is the same <6 4->4 <6 4->4 <5>8. r16 <6>8 <6\! 5-> } >>
When using extender lines, adjacent figures with the same number in a different figure location can cause the figure positions to invert.
<< { fis4 g g, e' } \figures { \bassFigureExtendersOn <6 5>4 <5\! 4> < 5 _!> <6> } >>
To avoid this problem, simply turn on extenders after the figure that begins the extender line and turn them off at the end of the extender line.
<< { fis4 g g, e' } \figures { <6 5>4 <5 4> \bassFigureExtendersOn < 5 _!>4 <6> \bassFigureExtendersOff } >>
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Displaying figured bass ] | [ Up : Specialist notation ] | [ Overview of the supported styles > ] |
2.8 Ancient notation
Support for ancient notation includes features for mensural notation and Gregorian chant notation. These features can be accessed either by modifying style properties of graphical objects such as note heads and rests, or by using one of the pre-defined contexts for mensural or Gregorian notation.
Many graphical objects, such as note heads and flags, accidentals,
time signatures, and rests, provide a style
property, which
can be changed to emulate several different styles of ancient
notation. See
- Mensural note heads,
- Mensural accidentals and key signatures,
- Mensural rests,
- Mensural clefs,
- Gregorian clefs,
- Mensural flags,
- Mensural time signatures.
Some notational concepts are introduced specifically for ancient notation,
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Ancient notation ] | [ Up : Ancient notation ] | [ Ancient notation---common features > ] |
2.8.1 Overview of the supported styles
Three styles are available for typesetting Gregorian chant:
- Editio Vaticana is a complete style for Gregorian chant, following the appearance of the Solesmes editions, the official chant books of the Vatican since 1904. Lilypond has support for all the notational signs used in this style, including ligatures, custodes, and special signs such as the quilisma and the oriscus.
- The Editio Medicaea style offers certain features used in the Medicaea (or Ratisbona) editions which were used prior to the Solesmes editions. The most significant differences from the Vaticana style are the clefs, which have downward-slanted strokes, and the noteheads, which are square and regular.
- The Hufnagel (“horseshoe nail”) or Gothic style mimics the writing style in chant manuscripts from Germany and Central Europe during the middle ages. It is named after the basic note shape (the virga), which looks like a small nail.
Three styles emulate the appearance of late-medieval and renaissance manuscripts and prints of mensural music:
- The Mensural style most closely resembles the writing style used in late-medieval and early renaissance manuscripts, with its small and narrow, diamond-shaped noteheads and its rests which approach a hand-drawn style.
- The Neomensural style is a modernized and stylized version of the former: the noteheads are broader and the rests are made up of straight lines. This style is particularly suited, e.g., for incipits of transcribed pieces of mensural music.
- The Petrucci style is named after Ottaviano Petrucci (1466-1539), the first printer to use movable type for music (in his Harmonice musices odhecaton, 1501). The style uses larger note heads than the other mensural styles.
Baroque and Classical are not complete styles but differ from the default style only in some details: certain noteheads (Baroque) and the quarter rest (Classical).
Only the mensural style has alternatives for all aspects of the notation. Thus, there are no rests or flags in the Gregorian styles, since these signs are not used in plainchant notation, and the Petrucci style has no flags or accidentals of its own.
Each element of the notation can be changed independently of the others, so that one can use mensural flags, petrucci noteheads, classical rests and vaticana clefs in the same piece, if one wishes.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Overview of the supported styles ] | [ Up : Ancient notation ] | [ Pre-defined contexts > ] |
2.8.2 Ancient notation—common features
Pre-defined contexts | ||
Ligatures | ||
Custodes | ||
Figured bass support |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Ancient notation---common features ] | [ Up : Ancient notation---common features ] | [ Ligatures > ] |
Pre-defined contexts
For Gregorian chant and mensural notation, there are pre-defined
voice and staff contexts available, which set all the various
notation signs to values suitable for these styles. If one is
satisfied with these defaults, one can proceed directly with note
entry without worrying about the details on how to customize a
context. See one of the pre-defined contexts
VaticanaVoice
, VaticanaStaff
, MensuralVoice
,
and MensuralStaff
. See further
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Pre-defined contexts ] | [ Up : Ancient notation---common features ] | [ Custodes > ] |
Ligatures
A ligature is a graphical symbol that represents at least two distinct notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation to denote ascending or descending sequences of notes on the same syllable. They are also used in mensural notation.
Ligatures are entered by enclosing them in \[
and
\]
. Some ligature styles may need additional input syntax
specific for this particular type of ligature. By default, the
LigatureBracket engraver just puts a square bracket
above the ligature.
\transpose c c' { \[ g c a f d' \] a g f \[ e f a g \] }
Two other ligature styles are available: the Vaticana for
Gregorian chant, and the Mensural for mensural music (only white
mensural ligatures are supported for mensural music, and with
certain limitations). To use any of these styles, the default
Ligature_bracket_engraver
has to be replaced with one of the
specialized ligature engravers in the
Voice context,
as explained in White mensural ligatures and Gregorian square neume ligatures.
See also
Known issues and warnings
Ligatures need special spacing that has not yet been implemented. As a result, there is too much space between ligatures most of the time, and line breaking often is unsatisfactory. Also, lyrics do not correctly align with ligatures.
Accidentals must not be printed within a ligature, but instead need to be collected and printed in front of it.
The syntax still uses the deprecated infix style \[ music expr
\]
. For consistency reasons, it will eventually be changed to
postfix style note\[ ... note\]
.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Ligatures ] | [ Up : Ancient notation---common features ] | [ Figured bass support > ] |
Custodes
A custos (plural: custodes; Latin word for “guard”) is a symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch of the first note of the following line, thus helping the performer to manage line breaks during performance.
Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the seventeenth century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant like the Editio Vaticana. There are different custos glyphs used in different flavors of notational style.
For typesetting custodes, just put a
Custos_engraver into the
Staff context when declaring the \layout
block,
and change the style of the custos with an \override
if
desired, as shown in the following example:
The custos glyph is selected by the style
property. The styles
supported are vaticana
, medicaea
, hufnagel
, and
mensural
. They are demonstrated in the following fragment
See also
Internals Reference: Custos.
Examples: Ancient notation.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Custodes ] | [ Up : Ancient notation---common features ] | [ Typesetting mensural music > ] |
Figured bass support
There is limited support for figured bass notation from the Baroque period; see Figured bass.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Figured bass support ] | [ Up : Ancient notation ] | [ Mensural contexts > ] |
2.8.3 Typesetting mensural music
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Typesetting mensural music ] | [ Up : Typesetting mensural music ] | [ Mensural clefs > ] |
Mensural contexts
The predefined MensuralVoice
and MensuralStaff
contexts can be used to engrave a piece in mensural style. These
contexts initialize all relevant context properties and grob
properties to proper values, so you can immediately go ahead
entering the chant, as the following excerpt demonstrates:
\score { << \new MensuralVoice = "discantus" \transpose c c' { \override Score.BarNumber #'transparent = ##t { c'1\melisma bes a g\melismaEnd f\breve \[ f1\melisma a c'\breve d'\melismaEnd \] c'\longa c'\breve\melisma a1 g1\melismaEnd fis\longa^\signumcongruentiae } } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "discantus" { San -- ctus, San -- ctus, San -- ctus } >> }
See also
TODO: nothing here yet ...
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Mensural contexts ] | [ Up : Typesetting mensural music ] | [ Mensural time signatures > ] |
Mensural clefs
The following table shows all mensural clefs that are supported via
the \clef
command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph,
but differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In
such cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate
these clefs, numbered from the lowest to the highest line. Still,
you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an arbitrary
line, as described in Clef. The note printed to the right
side of each clef in the example column denotes the c'
with
respect to that clef.
Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical beams, depending on which staff line it is printed.
Description | Supported Clefs | Example |
mensural C clef |
| |
mensural F clef |
| |
mensural G clef |
| |
neomensural C clef |
| |
petrucci style C clefs, for use on different staff lines (the example shows the 2nd staff line C clef) |
| |
petrucci style F clef |
| |
petrucci style G clef |
|
See also
Notation Reference: see Clef.
Known issues and warnings
The mensural g clef is mapped to the Petrucci g clef.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Mensural clefs ] | [ Up : Typesetting mensural music ] | [ Mensural note heads > ] |
Mensural time signatures
There is limited support for mensuration signs (which are similar to, but
not exactly the same as time signatures). The glyphs are hard-wired to
particular time fractions. In other words, to get a particular mensuration
sign with the \time n/m
command, n
and m
have to be
chosen according to the following table
Use the style
property of grob
TimeSignature
to select ancient time signatures. Supported styles are
neomensural
and mensural
. The above table uses the
neomensural
style. The following examples show the
differences in style:
See also
Notation Reference: Time signature, gives a general introduction to the use of time signatures.
Known issues and warnings
Ratios of note durations do not change with the time signature. For example, the ratio of 1 breve = 3 semibreves (tempus perfectum) must be made by hand, by setting
breveTP = #(ly:make-duration -1 0 3 2) … { c\breveTP f1 }
This sets breveTP
to 3/2 times 2 = 3 times a whole note.
The mensural68alt
and neomensural68alt
symbols
(alternate symbols for 6/8) are not addressable with \time
.
Use \markup {\musicglyph #"timesig.mensural68alt" }
instead.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Mensural time signatures ] | [ Up : Typesetting mensural music ] | [ Mensural flags > ] |
Mensural note heads
For ancient notation, a note head style other than the default
style
may be chosen. This is accomplished by setting the style
property of
the
NoteHead object to baroque
, neomensural
,
mensural
or petrucci
.
The baroque
style differs from the default
style by:
- Providing a
maxima
notehead, and - Using a square shape for
\breve
note heads.
The neomensural
, mensural
, and petrucci
styles differ from
the baroque
style by:
- Using rhomboidal heads for semibreves and all smaller durations, and
- Centering the stems on the note heads.
The following example demonstrates the petrucci
style:
\set Score.skipBars = ##t \autoBeamOff \override NoteHead #'style = #'petrucci a'\maxima a'\longa a'\breve a'1 a'2 a'4 a'8 a'16 a'
See also
Note head styles gives an overview of all available note head styles.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Mensural note heads ] | [ Up : Typesetting mensural music ] | [ Mensural rests > ] |
Mensural flags
Use the flag-style
property of grob
Stem to
select ancient flags. Besides the default
flag style,
only the mensural
style is supported.
\override Stem #'flag-style = #'mensural \override Stem #'thickness = #1.0 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural \autoBeamOff c'8 d'8 e'8 f'8 c'16 d'16 e'16 f'16 c'32 d'32 e'32 f'32 s8 c''8 d''8 e''8 f''8 c''16 d''16 e''16 f''16 c''32 d''32 e''32 f''32
Note that the innermost flare of each mensural flag always is vertically aligned with a staff line.
There is no particular flag style for neo-mensural or Petrucci notation. There are no flags in Gregorian chant notation.
See also
TODO: nothing here yet ...
Known issues and warnings
The attachment of ancient flags to stems is slightly off.
Vertically aligning each flag with a staff line assumes that stems always end either exactly on or exactly in the middle between two staff lines. This may not always be true when using advanced layout features of classical notation (which however are typically out of scope for mensural notation).
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Mensural flags ] | [ Up : Typesetting mensural music ] | [ Mensural accidentals and key signatures > ] |
Mensural rests
Use the style
property of grob
Rest to select
ancient rests. Supported styles are classical
,
neomensural
, and mensural
. classical
differs
from the default
style only in that the quarter rest looks
like a horizontally mirrored 8th rest. The mensural
and
the neomensural
styles mimic the appearance of rests in
manuscripts and prints up to the 16th century.
The following example demonstrates the mensural
and
neomensural
styles:
\set Score.skipBars = ##t \override Rest #'style = #'classical r\longa^"classical" r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 s \break \override Rest #'style = #'mensural r\longa^"mensural" r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 s \break \override Rest #'style = #'neomensural r\longa^"neomensural" r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16
There are no 32th and 64th rests specifically for the mensural or neo-mensural style. Instead, the rests from the default style will be taken.
See Ancient notation for a chart of all rests.
See also
Notation Reference: Rests, gives a general introduction into the use of rests.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Mensural rests ] | [ Up : Typesetting mensural music ] | [ Annotational accidentals (musica ficta) > ] |
Mensural accidentals and key signatures
The mensural
style provides a sharp and a flat sign
different from the default style. If called for, the natural sign
will be taken from the vaticana
style.
The style for accidentals and key signatures is controlled by the
glyph-name-alist
property of the grobs
Accidental and
KeySignature, respectively; e.g.:
\override Staff.Accidental #'glyph-name-alist =
#alteration-mensural-glyph-name-alist
See also
Notation Reference: Pitches, Accidentals, and Automatic accidentals give a general introduction of the use of accidentals. Key signature gives a general introduction of the use of key signatures.
Internals Reference: KeySignature.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Mensural accidentals and key signatures ] | [ Up : Typesetting mensural music ] | [ White mensural ligatures > ] |
Annotational accidentals (musica ficta)
In European music from before about 1600, singers were expected to chromatically alter notes at their own initiative according to certain rules. This is called musica ficta. In modern transcriptions, these accidentals are usually printed over the note.
Support for such suggested accidentals is included, and can be
switched on by setting suggestAccidentals
to true.
fis gis \set suggestAccidentals = ##t ais bis
This will treat every subsequent accidental as musica
ficta until it is unset with \set suggestAccidentals =
##f
. A more practical way is to use \once \set
suggestAccidentals = ##t
, which can even be defined as a
convenient shorthand:
ficta = { \once \set suggestAccidentals = ##t } \score { \relative c'' \new MensuralVoice { \once \set suggestAccidentals = ##t bes4 a2 g2 \ficta fis8 \ficta e! fis2 g1 } }
See also
Internals Reference: Accidental_engraver engraver and the AccidentalSuggestion object.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Annotational accidentals (musica ficta) ] | [ Up : Typesetting mensural music ] | [ Typesetting Gregorian chant > ] |
White mensural ligatures
There is limited support for white mensural ligatures.
To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the layout block, replace the Ligature_bracket_engraver with the Mensural_ligature_engraver in the Voice context:
\layout { \context { \Voice \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver } }
There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may take a new user a while to get accustomed to, it has the great advantage that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally. This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for automatic transcription of the ligatures.
For example,
\score { \transpose c c' { \set Score.timing = ##f \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty" \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural \clef "petrucci-g" \[ c'\maxima g \] \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \] \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \] \[ e'1 a g\breve \] } \layout { \context { \Voice \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver } } }
Without replacing Ligature_bracket_engraver with Mensural_ligature_engraver, the same music transcribes to the following
See also
TODO: nothing here yet ...
Known issues and warnings
Horizontal spacing of ligatures is poor.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < White mensural ligatures ] | [ Up : Ancient notation ] | [ Gregorian chant contexts > ] |
2.8.4 Typesetting Gregorian chant
Gregorian chant contexts | ||
Gregorian clefs | ||
Gregorian accidentals and key signatures | ||
Divisiones | ||
Gregorian articulation signs | ||
Augmentum dots (morae) | ||
Gregorian square neume ligatures |
When typesetting a piece in Gregorian chant notation, the
Vaticana_ligature_engraver automatically selects the
proper note heads, so there is no need to explicitly set the note
head style. Still, the note head style can be set, e.g., to
vaticana_punctum
to produce punctum neumes. Similarly, the
Mensural_ligature_engraver automatically assembles
mensural ligatures. See Ligatures, for how ligature
engravers work.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Typesetting Gregorian chant ] | [ Up : Typesetting Gregorian chant ] | [ Gregorian clefs > ] |
Gregorian chant contexts
The predefined VaticanaVoiceContext
and
VaticanaStaffContext
can be used to engrave a piece of
Gregorian chant in the style of the Editio Vaticana. These contexts
initialize all relevant context properties and grob properties to
proper values, so you can immediately go ahead entering the chant, as
the following excerpt demonstrates:
\include "gregorian.ly" \score { << \new VaticanaVoice = "cantus" { \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \] \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \] f \divisioMinima \[ f\melisma \pes a c' c' \pes d'\melismaEnd \] c' \divisioMinima \break \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \] \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \] f \divisioMinima } \new Lyrics \lyricsto "cantus" { San- ctus, San- ctus, San- ctus } >> }
See also
TODO: nothing here yet ...
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Gregorian chant contexts ] | [ Up : Typesetting Gregorian chant ] | [ Gregorian accidentals and key signatures > ] |
Gregorian clefs
The following table shows all Gregorian clefs that are supported via
the \clef
command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph,
but differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In
such cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate
these clefs, numbered from the lowest to the highest line. Still,
you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an arbitrary
line, as described in Clef. The note printed to the right
side of each clef in the example column denotes the c'
with
respect to that clef.
Description | Supported Clefs | Example |
Editio Vaticana style do clef |
| |
Editio Vaticana style fa clef |
| |
Editio Medicaea style do clef |
| |
Editio Medicaea style fa clef |
| |
hufnagel style do clef |
| |
hufnagel style fa clef |
| |
hufnagel style combined do/fa clef |
|
See also
Notation Reference: see Clef.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Gregorian clefs ] | [ Up : Typesetting Gregorian chant ] | [ Divisiones > ] |
Gregorian accidentals and key signatures
Accidentals for the three different Gregorian styles are available:
As shown, not all accidentals are supported by each style. When trying to access an unsupported accidental, LilyPond will switch to a different style.
The style for accidentals and key signatures is controlled by the
glyph-name-alist
property of the grobs
Accidental and
KeySignature, respectively; e.g.:
\override Staff.Accidental #'glyph-name-alist =
#alteration-mensural-glyph-name-alist
See also
Notation Reference: Pitches, Accidentals, and Automatic accidentals give a general introduction of the use of accidentals. Key signature gives a general introduction of the use of key signatures.
Internals Reference: KeySignature.
Divisiones
There are no rests in Gregorian chant notation; instead, it uses Divisiones.
A divisio (plural: divisiones; Latin word for ‘division’) is a staff context symbol that is used to indicate the phrase and section structure of Gregorian music. The musical meaning of divisio minima, divisio maior, and divisio maxima can be characterized as short, medium, and long pause, somewhat like the breathmarks from Breath marks. The finalis sign not only marks the end of a chant, but is also frequently used within a single antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
To use divisiones, include the file ‘gregorian.ly’. It
contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
\divisioMinima
, \divisioMaior
, \divisioMaxima
,
and \finalis
at proper places in the input. Some editions use
virgula or caesura instead of divisio minima.
Therefore, ‘gregorian.ly’ also defines \virgula
and
\caesura
Predefined commands
\virgula
,
\caesura
,
\divisioMinima
,
\divisioMaior
,
\divisioMaxima
,
\finalis
.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Divisiones ] | [ Up : Typesetting Gregorian chant ] | [ Augmentum dots (morae) > ] |
Gregorian articulation signs
In addition to the standard articulation signs described in section Articulations and ornamentations, articulation signs specifically designed for use with notation in Editio Vaticana style are provided.
\include "gregorian.ly" \score { \new VaticanaVoice { \override TextScript #'font-family = #'typewriter \override TextScript #'font-shape = #'upright \override Script #'padding = #-0.1 a\ictus_"ictus " \break a\circulus_"circulus " \break a\semicirculus_"semicirculus " \break a\accentus_"accentus " \break \[ a_"episema" \episemInitium \pes b \flexa a b \episemFinis \flexa a \] } }
See also
TODO: nothing here yet ...
Known issues and warnings
Some articulations are vertically placed too closely to the corresponding note heads.
The episema line is not displayed in many cases. If it is displayed, the right end of the episema line is often too far to the right.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Gregorian articulation signs ] | [ Up : Typesetting Gregorian chant ] | [ Gregorian square neume ligatures > ] |
Augmentum dots (morae)
Augmentum dots, also called morae, are added with the music
function \augmentum
. Note that \augmentum
is
implemented as a unary music function rather than as head prefix. It
applies to the immediately following music expression only. That is,
\augmentum \virga c
will have no visible effect. Instead, say
\virga \augmentum c
or \augmentum {\virga c}
. Also
note that you can say \augmentum {a g}
as a shortcut for
\augmentum a \augmentum g
.
\include "gregorian.ly" \score { \new VaticanaVoice { \[ \augmentum a \flexa \augmentum g \] \augmentum g } }
See also
Notation Reference: Breath marks.
Internals Reference: BreathingSign.
Examples: Ancient notation.
Gregorian square neume ligatures
There is limited support for Gregorian square neumes notation (following the style of the Editio Vaticana). Core ligatures can already be typeset, but essential issues for serious typesetting are still lacking, such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple ligatures, lyrics alignment, and proper handling of accidentals.
The support for Gregorian neumes is enabled by \include
ing
"gregorian.ly" at the beginning of the file. This makes available
a number of extra commands to produce the neume symbols used in
plainchant notation.
Note heads can be modified and/or joined.
- The shape of
the note head can be modified by prefixing the note name
with any of the following commands:
\virga
,\stropha
,\inclinatum
,\auctum
,\descendens
,\ascendens
,\oriscus
,\quilisma
,\deminutum
,\cavum
,\linea
. - Ligatures, properly speaking (i.e. notes joined together), are
produced by placing one of the joining commands
\pes
or\flexa
, for upwards and downwards movement, respectively, between the notes to be joined.
A note name without any qualifiers will produce a punctum.
All other neumes, including the single-note neumes with a
different shape such as the virga, are in principle
considered as ligatures and should therefore be placed
between \[...\]
.
Single-note neumes:
- The punctum is the basic note shape (in the
Vaticana style: a square with some curvation for
typographical finesse). In addition to the regular
punctum, there is also the oblique punctum
inclinatum, produced with the prefix
\inclinatum
. The regular punctum can be modified with\cavum
, which produces a hollow note, and\linea
, which draws vertical lines on either side of the note. - The virga has a descending stem on the right side. It is
produced by the modifier
\virga
.
Ligatures
Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the typographical
appearance of ligatures is not directly dictated by the input
commands, but follows certain conventions dependent on musical
meaning. For example, a three-note ligature with the musical shape
low-high-low, such as \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
, produces a
Torculus consisting of three Punctum heads, while the shape
high-low-high, such as \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
, produces a
Porrectus with a curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum
head. There is no command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa
shape; the decision of when to typeset a curved flexa shape is
based on the musical input. The idea of this approach is to
separate the musical aspects of the input from the notation style
of the output. This way, the same input can be reused to typeset
the same music in a different style of Gregorian chant notation.
Liquescent neumes
Another main category of notes in Gregorian chant is the so-called liquescent neumes. They are used under certain circumstances at the end of a syllable which ends in a ‘liquescent’ letter, i.e. the sounding consonants that can hold a tone (the nasals, l, r, v, j, and their diphtong equivalents). Thus, the liquescent neumes are never used alone (although some of them can be produced), and they always fall at the end of a ligature.
Liquescent neumes are represented graphically in two different,
more or less interchangeable ways: with a smaller note or by
‘twisting’ the main note upwards or downwards. The first is
produced by making a regular pes
or flexa
and
modifying the shape of the second note: \[ a \pes \deminutum
b \]
, the second by modifying the shape of a single-note neume
with \auctum
and one of the direction markers
\descendens
or \ascendens
, e.g. \[ \auctum
\descendens a \]
.
Special signs
A third category of signs is made up of a small number of signs
with a special meaning (which, incidentally, in most cases is only
vaguely known): the quilisma, the oriscus, and the
strophicus. These are all produced by prefixing a note name
with the corresponding modifier, \quilisma
,
\oriscus
, or \stropha
.
Virtually, within the ligature delimiters \[
and \]
,
any number of heads may be accumulated to form a single ligature,
and head prefixes like \pes
, \flexa
, \virga
,
\inclinatum
, etc. may be mixed in as desired. The use of
the set of rules that underlies the construction of the ligatures
in the above table is accordingly extrapolated. This way,
infinitely many different ligatures can be created.
Note that the use of these signs in the music itself follows certain rules, which are not checked by Lilypond. E.g., the quilisma is always the middle note of an ascending ligature, and usually falls on a half-tone step, but it is perfectly possible, although incorrect, to make a single-note quilisma.
In addition to the note signs, gregorian.ly also defines the
commands \versus
, \responsum
, \ij
,
\iij
, \IJ
, and \IIJ
, that will produce the
corresponding characters, e.g. for use in lyrics, as section
markers, etc. These commands use special unicode characters and
will only work if a font is used which supports them.
The following table shows a limited, but still representative pool
of Gregorian ligatures, together with the code fragments that
produce the ligatures. The table is based on the extended neumes
table of the 2nd volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (Liber
Hymnarius), published 1983 by the monks of Solesmes. The first
column gives the name of the ligature, with the main form in
boldface and the liquescent forms in italics. The third column
shows the code fragment that produces this ligature, using
g
, a
, and b
as example pitches.
Single-note neums
Basic and Liquescent forms | Output | Lilypond |
Punctum |
| |
| ||
| ||
Punctum Auctum Ascendens |
| |
Punctum Auctum Descendens |
| |
Punctum inclinatum |
| |
Punctum Inclinatum Auctum |
| |
Punctum Inclinatum Parvum |
| |
Virga |
Two-note ligatures
Clivis vel Flexa |
| |
Clivis Aucta Descendens |
| |
Clivis Aucta Ascendens |
| |
Cephalicus |
| |
Podatus/Pes |
| |
Pes Auctus Descendens |
| |
Pes Auctus Ascendens |
| |
Epiphonus |
| |
Pes Initio Debilis |
| |
Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis |
|
Multi-note ligatures
Torculus |
| |
Torculus Auctus Descendens |
| |
Torculus Deminutus |
| |
Torculus Initio Debilis |
| |
Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis |
| |
Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis |
| |
Porrectus |
| |
Porrectus Auctus Descendens |
| |
Porrectus Deminutus |
| |
Climacus |
| |
Climacus Auctus |
| |
Climacus Deminutus |
| |
Scandicus |
| |
Scandicus Auctus Descendens |
| |
Scandicus Deminutus |
|
Special Signs
Quilisma |
| |
Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens |
| |
Oriscus |
| |
Pes Quassus |
| |
Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens |
| |
Salicus |
| |
Salicus Auctus Descendens |
| |
(Apo)stropha |
| |
Stropha Aucta |
| |
Bistropha |
| |
Tristropha |
| |
Trigonus |
|
Predefined commands
The following head prefixes are supported:
\virga
,
\stropha
,
\inclinatum
,
\auctum
,
\descendens
,
\ascendens
,
\oriscus
,
\quilisma
,
\deminutum
,
\cavum
,
\linea
.
Head prefixes can be accumulated, though restrictions apply. For
example, either \descendens
or \ascendens
can be applied
to a head, but not both to the same head.
Two adjacent heads can be tied together with the \pes
and
\flexa
infix commands for a rising and falling line of melody,
respectively.
Use the unary music function \augmentum
to add augmentum dots.
See also
TODO: nothing here yet ...
Known issues and warnings
When an \augmentum
dot appears at the end of the last staff
within a ligature, it is sometimes vertically placed wrong. As a
workaround, add an additional skip note (e.g. s8
) as last note
of the staff.
\augmentum
should be implemented as a head prefix rather than a
unary music function, such that \augmentum
can be intermixed
with head prefixes in arbitrary order.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Gregorian square neume ligatures ] | [ Up : Ancient notation ] | [ Incipits > ] |
2.8.5 Working with ancient music—scenarios and solutions
Incipits | ||
Mensurstriche layout | ||
Transcribing Gregorian chant | ||
Ancient and modern from one source | ||
Editorial markings |
Working with ancient music frequently involves particular tasks which differ considerably from the modern notation for which Lilypond is designed. In the rest of this section, a number of typical scenarios are outlined, with suggestions of solutions. These involve:
- how to make incipits (i.e. prefatory material to indicate what the original has looked like) to modern transcriptions of mensural music;
- how to achieve the Mensurstriche layout frequently used for modern transcriptions of polyphonic music;
- how to transcribe Gregorian chant in modern notation;
- how to generate both ancient and modern notation from the same source.
Incipits
TBC
See also
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Incipits ] | [ Up : Working with ancient music---scenarios and solutions ] | [ Transcribing Gregorian chant > ] |
Mensurstriche layout
Mensurstriche (‘mensuration lines’) is the accepted term for bar lines that are drawn between the staves of a system but not through the staves themselves. It is a common way to preserve the rhythmic appearance of the original, i.e. not having to break syncopated notes at bar lines, while still providing the orientation aids that bar lines give.
The mensurstriche-layout where the bar lines do not show on the staves
but between staves can be achieved with a StaffGroup
instead of
a ChoirStaff
. The bar line on staves is blanked out by setting
the transparent
property.
global = { \override Staff.BarLine #'transparent = ##t s1 s % the final bar line is not interrupted \revert Staff.BarLine #'transparent \bar "|." } \new StaffGroup \relative c'' { << \new Staff { << \global { c1 c } >> } \new Staff { << \global { c c } >> } >> }
See also
Transcribing Gregorian chant
Gregorian chant can be transcribed into modern notation with a number of simple tweaks.
Stems. Stems can be left out altogether by \remove
-ing
the Stem_engraver
from the Voice context:
\layout { ... \context { \Voice \remove "Stem_engraver" } }
However, in some transcription styles, stems are used
occasionally, for example to indicate the transition from a
single-tone recitative to a fixed melodic gesture. In these cases,
one can use either \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
or
\override Stem #'length = #0
instead, and restore the stem
when needed with the corresponding \once \override Stem
#'transparent = ##f
(see example below).
Timing. For unmetered chant, there are several alternatives.
The Time_signature_engraver can be removed from the Staff context without any negative side effects. The alternative, to make it transparent, will leave an empty space in the score, since the invisible signature will still take up space.
In many cases, \set Score.timing = ##f
will give good
results. Another alternative is to use \\CadenzaOn
and
\CadenzaOff
.
To remove the barlines, the radical approach is to \remove
the Bar_engraver from the Staff context. Again, one may want to
use \override BarLine #'transparent = ##t
instead, if an
occasional barline is wanted.
A common type of transcription is recitativic chant where the repeated notes are indicated with a single breve. The text to the recitation tone can be dealt with in two different ways: either set as a single, left-aligned syllable:
\include "gregorian.ly" chant = \relative c' { \clef "G_8" c\breve c4 b4 a c2 c4 \divisioMaior c\breve c4 c f, f \finalis } verba = \lyricmode { \once \override LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1 "Noctem quietam et" fi -- nem per -- fec -- tum \once \override LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1 "concedat nobis Dominus" om -- ni -- po -- tens. } \score { \new Staff << \new Voice = "melody" \chant \new Lyrics = "one" \lyricsto melody \verba >> \layout { \context { \Staff \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Bar_engraver" \override Stem #'transparent = ##t } } }
This works fine, as long as the text doesn’t span a line break. If that is the case, an alternative is to add hidden notes to the score, here in combination with changing stem visibility:
\include "gregorian.ly" chant = \relative c' { \clef "G_8" \set Score.timing = ##f c\breve \override NoteHead #'transparent = ##t c c c c c \revert NoteHead #'transparent \override Stem #'transparent = ##f \stemUp c4 b4 a \override Stem #'transparent = ##t c2 c4 \divisioMaior c\breve \override NoteHead #'transparent = ##t c c c c c c c \revert NoteHead #'transparent c4 c f, f \finalis } verba = \lyricmode { No -- ctem qui -- e -- tam et fi -- nem per -- fec -- tum con -- ce -- dat no -- bis Do -- mi -- nus om -- ni -- po -- tens. } \score { \new Staff << \new Voice = "melody" \chant \new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" \verba >> \layout { \context { \Staff \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \override BarLine #'transparent = ##t \override Stem #'transparent = ##t } } }
Another common situation is transcription of neumatic or
melismatic chants, i.e. chants with a varying number of notes
to each syllable. In this case, one would want to set the
syllable groups clearly apart, usually also the subdivisions of a
longer melisma. One way to achieve this is to use a fixed
\time
, e.g. 1/4, and let each syllable or note group fill
one of these measures, with the help of tuplets or shorter
durations. If the barlines and all other rhythmical indications
are made transparent, and the space around the barlines is
increased, this will give a fairly good representation in modern
notation of the original.
To avoid that syllables of different width (such as “-ri” and
“-rum”) spread the syllable note groups unevenly apart, the
#'X-extent
property of the LyricText
object may be
set to a fixed value. Another, more cumbersome way would be to
add the syllables as \markup
elements. If further
adjustments are necessary, this can be easily done with
s
‘notes’.
spiritus = \relative c' { \time 1/4 \override Lyrics.LyricText #'X-extent = #'(0 . 3) d4 \times 2/3 { f8 a g } g a a4 g f8 e d4 f8 g g8 d f g a g f4 g8 a a4 s \times 2/3 { g8 f d } e f g a g4 } spirLyr = \lyricmode { Spi -- ri -- _ _ tus _ Do -- mi -- ni _ re -- ple -- _ vit _ or -- _ bem _ ter -- ra -- _ rum, al -- _ _ le -- _ lu -- _ ia. } \score { \new Staff << \new Voice = "chant" \spiritus \new Lyrics = "one" \lyricsto "chant" \spirLyr >> \layout { \context { \Staff \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \override BarLine #'X-extent = #'(-1 . 1) \override Stem #'transparent = ##t \override Beam #'transparent = ##t \override BarLine #'transparent = ##t \override TupletNumber #'transparent = ##t } } }
See also
Ancient and modern from one source
TBC
See also
Editorial markings
TBC
See also
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Editorial markings ] | [ Up : Specialist notation ] | [ Arabic music > ] |
2.9 World music
The purpose of this section is to highlight musical notation issues that are relevant to traditions outside the Western tradition.
2.9.1 Arabic music |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < World music ] | [ Up : World music ] | [ References for Arabic music > ] |
2.9.1 Arabic music
This section highlights issues that are relevant to notating Arabic music.
References for Arabic music | ||
Arabic note names | ||
Arabic key signatures | ||
Arabic time signatures | ||
Arabic music example | ||
Further reading |
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Arabic music ] | [ Up : Arabic music ] | [ Arabic note names > ] |
References for Arabic music
Arabic music so far has been mainly an oral tradition. When music is transcribed, it is usually in a sketch format, on which performers are expected to improvise significantly. Increasingly, Western notation, with a few variations, is adopted in order to communicate and preserve Arabic music.
Some elements of Western musical notation such as the transcription of chords or independent parts, are not required to typeset the more traditional Arabic pieces. There are however some different issues, such as the need to indicate medium intervals that are somewhere between a semi-tone and a tone, in addition to the minor and major intervals that are used in Western music. There is also the need to group and indicate a large number of different maqams (modes) that are part of Arabic music.
In general, Arabic music notation does not attempt to precisely indicate microtonal elements that are present in musical practice.
Several issues that are relevant to Arabic music are covered elsewhere:
- Note names and accidentals (including quarter tones) can be tailored as discussed in Note names in other languages.
- Additional key signatures can also be tailored as described in Key signature.
- Complex time signatures may require that notes be grouped manually as described in Manual beams.
- Takasim which are rhythmically free improvisations may be written down omitting bar lines as described in Unmetered music.
See also
Notation Reference: Note names in other languages, Key signature, Manual beams.
Snippets: World music.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < References for Arabic music ] | [ Up : Arabic music ] | [ Arabic key signatures > ] |
Arabic note names
The more traditional Arabic note names can be quite long and are
not suitable for the purpose of music writing, so they are not
used. English note names are not very familiar in Arabic music
education, so Italian or Solfege note names (do, re, mi, fa,
sol, la, si
) are used instead. Modifiers (accidentals) can also
be used, as discussed in Note names in other languages.
For example, this is how the Arabic rast scale can be notated:
\include "arabic.ly" \relative do' { do re misb fa sol la sisb do sisb la sol fa misb re do }
The symbol for semi-flat does not match the symbol which is used
in Arabic notation. The \dwn
symbol defined in
arabic.ly
may be used preceding a flat symbol as a work
around if it is important to use the specific Arabic semi-flat
symbol. The appearance of the semi-flat symbol in the key
signature cannot be altered by using this method.
\include "arabic.ly" \relative do' { \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f dod dob dosd \dwn dob dobsb dodsd do do }
See also
Notation Reference: Note names in other languages.
Snippets: World music.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Arabic note names ] | [ Up : Arabic music ] | [ Arabic time signatures > ] |
Arabic key signatures
In addition to the minor and major key signatures, the following
key signatures are defined in arabic.ly
: bayati,
rast, sikah, iraq, and
kurd. These key signatures define a small number of
maqam groups rather than the large number of maqams that are in
common use.
In general, a maqam uses the key signature of its group, or a neighbouring group, and varying accidentals are marked throughout the music.
For example to indicate the key signature of a maqam muhayer piece:
\key re \bayati
Here re is the default pitch of the muhayer maqam, and bayati is the name of the base maqam in the group.
While the key signature indicates the group, it is common for the title to indicate the more specific maqam, so in this example, the name of maqam muhayer should appear in the title.
Other maqams in the same bayati group, as shown in the table below: (bayati, hussaini, saba, and ushaq) can be indicated in the same way. These are all variations of the base and most common maqam in the group, which is bayati. They usually differ from the base maqam in their upper tetrachords, or certain flow details that don’t change their fundamental nature, as siblings.
The other maqam in the same group (Nawa) is related to bayati by modulation which is indicated in the table in parenthesis for those maqams that are modulations of their base maqam. Arabic maqams admit of only limited modulations, due to the nature of Arabic musical instruments. Nawa can be indicated as follows:
\key sol \bayati
In Arabic music, the same term such as bayati that is used to indicate a maqam group, is also a maqam which is usually the most important in the group, and can also be thought of as a base maqam.
Here is one suggested grouping that maps the more common maqams to key signatures:
maqam group | key | finalis | Other maqmas in group (finalis) |
---|---|---|---|
ajam | major | sib | jaharka (fa) |
bayati | bayati | re | hussaini, muhayer, saba, ushaq, nawa (sol) |
hijaz | kurd | re | shahnaz, shad arban (sol), hijazkar (do) |
iraq | iraq | sisb | - |
kurd | kurd | re | hijazkar kurd (do) |
nahawand | minor | do | busalik (re), farah faza (sol) |
nakriz | minor | do | nawa athar, hisar (re) |
rast | rast | do | mahur, yakah (sol) |
sikah | sikah | misb | huzam |
Selected Snippets
Non-traditional key signatures
The commonly used \key
command sets the keySignature
property, in the Staff
context.
To create non-standard key signatures, set this property directly. The format of this command is a list:
\set Staff.keySignature = #`(((octave . step) . alter) ((octave
. step) . alter) ...)
where, for each element in the list,
octave
specifies the octave (0 being the octave from middle C to
the B above), step
specifies the note within the octave (0 means
C and 6 means B), and alter
is ,SHARP ,FLAT ,DOUBLE-SHARP
etc. (Note the leading comma.) The accidentals in the key signature
will appear in the reverse order to that in which they are specified.
Alternatively, for each item in the list, using the more concise format
(step . alter)
specifies that the same alteration should hold in
all octaves.
For microtonal scales where a "sharp" is not 100 cents, alter
refers to the alteration as a proportion of a 200-cent whole tone.
Here is an example of a possible key signature for generating a whole-tone scale:
\relative c' { \set Staff.keySignature = #`(((0 . 3) . ,SHARP) ((0 . 5) . ,FLAT) ((0 . 6) . ,FLAT)) c4 d e fis aes4 bes c2 }
See also
Notation Reference: Key signature.
Learning Manual: Accidentals and key signatures.
Internals Reference: KeySignature.
Snippets: World music, Pitches.
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[ < Arabic key signatures ] | [ Up : Arabic music ] | [ Arabic music example > ] |
Arabic time signatures
Some Arabic and Turkish music classical forms such as Semai use unusual time signatures such as 10/8. This may lead to an automatic grouping of notes that is quite different from existing typeset music, where notes may not be grouped on the beat, but in a manner that is difficult to match by adjusting automatic beaming. You can override this by switching off automatic beaming and beaming the notes manually. Where matching existing typeset music is not an issue, you may still want to adjust the beaming behaviour and/or use compound time signatures.
Selected Snippets
Compound time signatures
Odd 20th century time signatures (such as "5/8") can often be played as compound time signatures (e.g. "3/8 + 2/8"), which combine two or more inequal metrics. LilyPond can make such music quite easy to read and play, by explicitly printing the compound time signatures and adapting the automatic beaming behavior. (Graphic measure grouping indications can also be added; see the appropriate snippet in this database.)
#(define ((compound-time one two num) grob) (grob-interpret-markup grob (markup #:override '(baseline-skip . 0) #:number (#:line ( (#:column (one num)) #:vcenter "+" (#:column (two num)))) ))) \relative c' { \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil = #(compound-time "2" "3" "8") \time 5/8 #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 5 8) 1 4) c8 d e fis gis c8 fis, gis e d c8 d e4 gis8 }
Arabic improvisation
For improvisations or taqasim which are
temporarily free, the time signature can be omitted and
\cadenzaOn
can be used. Adjusting the accidental style
might be required, since the absence of bar lines will cause the
accidental to be marked only once. Here is an example of what
could be the start of a hijaz improvisation:
\include "arabic.ly" \relative sol' { \key re \kurd #(set-accidental-style 'forget) \cadenzaOn sol4 sol sol sol fad mib sol1 fad8 mib re4. r8 mib1 fad sol }
See also
Notation Reference: Manual beams, Automatic beams, Unmetered music, Automatic accidentals, Setting automatic beam behavior, Time signature.
Snippets: World music.
[ << Specialist notation ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ General input and output >> ] | ||
[ < Arabic time signatures ] | [ Up : Arabic music ] | [ Further reading > ] |
Arabic music example
Here is a template that also uses the start of a Turkish Semai that is familiar in Arabic music education in order to illustrate some of the peculiarities of Arabic music notation, such as medium intervals and unusual modes that are discussed in this section.
\include "arabic.ly" \score { \relative re' { \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f \key re \bayati \time 10/8 re4 re'8 re16 [misb re do] sisb [la sisb do] re4 r8 re16 [misb do re] sisb [do] la [sisb sol8] la [sisb] do [re] misb fa4 fa16 [misb] misb8. [re16] re8 [misb] re [do] sisb do4 sisb8 misb16 [re do sisb] la [do sisb la] la4 r8 } \header { title = "Semai Muhayer" composer = "Jamil Bek" } }
See also
Snippets: World music
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[ < Arabic music example ] | [ Up : Arabic music ] | [ General input and output > ] |
Further reading
-
The music of the Arabs by Habib Hassan Touma [Amadeus Press, 1996],
contains a discussion of maqams and their method of groupings.
There are also various web sites that explain maqams and some provide audio examples such as :
There are some variations in the details of how maqams are grouped, despite agreement on the criteria of grouping maqams that are related through common lower tetra chords, or through modulation.
-
There is not a complete consistency, sometimes even in the same
text on how key signatures for particular maqams should be
specified. It is common, however, to use a key signature per
group, rather than a different key signature for each different
maqam.
Oud methods by the following authors, contain examples of mainly Turkish and Arabic compositions.
- Charbel Rouhana
- George Farah
- Ibrahim Ali Darwish Al-masri
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[ < Further reading ] | [ Up : Top ] | [ Input structure > ] |
3. General input and output
This section deals with general LilyPond input and output issues, rather than specific notation.
3.1 Input structure | ||
3.2 Titles and headers | ||
3.3 Working with input files | ||
3.4 Controlling output | ||
3.5 MIDI output |
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[ < General input and output ] | [ Up : General input and output ] | [ Structure of a score > ] |
3.1 Input structure
The main format of input for LilyPond are text files. By convention,
these files end with .ly
.
3.1.1 Structure of a score | ||
3.1.2 Multiple scores in a book | ||
3.1.3 File structure |
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[ < Input structure ] | [ Up : Input structure ] | [ Multiple scores in a book > ] |
3.1.1 Structure of a score
A \score
block must contain a single music expression
delimited by curly brackets:
\score { ... }
Note: There must be only one outer music expression in
a |
This single music expression may be of any size, and may contain other music expressions to any complexity. All of these examples are music expressions:
{ c'4 c' c' c' }
{ { c'4 c' c' c'} { d'4 d' d' d'} }
<< \new Staff { c'4 c' c' c' } \new Staff { d'4 d' d' d' } >>
{ \new GrandStaff << \new StaffGroup << \new Staff { \flute } \new Staff { \oboe } >> \new StaffGroup << \new Staff { \violinI } \new Staff { \violinII } >> >> }
Comments are one exception to this general rule. (For others see
File structure.) Both single-line comments and comments
delimited by %{ .. %}
may be placed anywhere within an
input file. They may be placed inside or outside a \score
block, and inside or outside the single music expression within a
\score
block.
See also
Learning Manual: Working on input files, Music expressions explained, Score is a (single) compound musical expression.
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[ < Structure of a score ] | [ Up : Input structure ] | [ File structure > ] |
3.1.2 Multiple scores in a book
A document may contain multiple pieces of music and text. Examples
of these are an etude book, or an orchestral part with multiple
movements. Each movement is entered with a \score
block,
\score { ..music.. }
and texts are entered with a \markup
block,
\markup { ..text.. }
All the movements and texts which appear in the same .ly
file
will normally be typeset in the form of a single output file.
\score { .. } \markup { .. } \score { .. }
However, if you want multiple output files from the same .ly
file, then you can add multiple \book
blocks, where each such
\book
block will result in a separate output. If you do not
specify any \book
block in the file, LilyPond will implicitly
treat the full file as a single \book
block, see File structure. One important exception is within lilypond-book documents,
where you explicitly have to add a \book
block, otherwise only
the first \score
or \markup
will appear in the output.
The header for each piece of music can be put inside the \score
block. The piece
name from the header will be printed before
each movement. The title for the entire book can be put inside the
\book
, but if it is not present, the \header
which is at
the top of the file is inserted.
\header { title = "Eight miniatures" composer = "Igor Stravinsky" } \score { … \header { piece = "Romanze" } } \markup { ..text of second verse.. } \markup { ..text of third verse.. } \score { … \header { piece = "Menuetto" } }
Pieces of music may be grouped into book parts using \bookpart
blocks. Book parts are separated by a page break, and can start with a
title, like the book itself, by specifying a \header
block.
\bookpart { \header { title = "Book title" subtitle = "First part" } \score { … } … } \bookpart { \header { subtitle = "Second part" } \score { … } … }
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3.1.3 File structure
A .ly
file may contain any number of toplevel expressions, where a
toplevel expression is one of the following:
-
An output definition, such as
\paper
,\midi
, and\layout
. Such a definition at the toplevel changes the default book-wide settings. If more than one such definition of the same type is entered at the top level any definitions in the later expressions have precedence. -
A direct scheme expression, such as
#(set-default-paper-size "a7" 'landscape)
or#(ly:set-option 'point-and-click #f)
. -
A
\header
block. This sets the global header block. This is the block containing the definitions for book-wide settings, like composer, title, etc. -
A
\score
block. This score will be collected with other toplevel scores, and combined as a single\book
. This behavior can be changed by setting the variabletoplevel-score-handler
at toplevel. The default handler is defined in the init file ‘../scm/lily.scm’. -
A
\book
block logically combines multiple movements (i.e., multiple\score
blocks) in one document. If there are a number of\score
s, one output file will be created for each\book
block, in which all corresponding movements are concatenated. The only reason to explicitly specify\book
blocks in a.ly
file is if you wish to create multiple output files from a single input file. One exception is within lilypond-book documents, where you explicitly have to add a\book
block if you want more than a single\score
or\markup
in the same example. This behavior can be changed by setting the variabletoplevel-book-handler
at toplevel. The default handler is defined in the init file ‘../scm/lily.scm’. -
A
\bookpart
block. A book may be divided into several parts, using\bookpart
blocks, in order to ease the page breaking, or to use different\paper
settings in different parts. -
A compound music expression, such as
{ c'4 d' e'2 }
This will add the piece in a
\score
and format it in a single book together with all other toplevel\score
s and music expressions. In other words, a file containing only the above music expression will be translated into\book { \score { \new Staff { \new Voice { { c'4 d' e'2 } } } } \layout { } \header { } }
This behavior can be changed by setting the variable
toplevel-music-handler
at toplevel. The default handler is defined in the init file ‘../scm/lily.scm’. -
A markup text, a verse for example
\markup { 2. The first line verse two. }
Markup texts are rendered above, between or below the scores or music expressions, wherever they appear.
-
A variable, such as
foo = { c4 d e d }
This can be used later on in the file by entering
\foo
. The name of a variable should have alphabetic characters only; no numbers, underscores or dashes.
The following example shows three things that may be entered at toplevel
\layout { % Don't justify the output ragged-right = ##t } \header { title = "Do-re-mi" } { c'4 d' e2 }
At any point in a file, any of the following lexical instructions can be entered:
-
\version
-
\include
-
\sourcefilename
-
\sourcefileline
-
A single-line comment, introduced by a leading
%
sign. -
A multi-line comment delimited by
%{ .. %}
.
See also
Learning Manual: How LilyPond input files work.
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[ < File structure ] | [ Up : General input and output ] | [ Creating titles > ] |
3.2 Titles and headers
Almost all printed music includes a title and the composer’s name; some pieces include a lot more information.
3.2.1 Creating titles | ||
3.2.2 Custom titles | ||
3.2.3 Reference to page numbers | ||
3.2.4 Table of contents |
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[ < Titles and headers ] | [ Up : Titles and headers ] | [ Custom titles > ] |
3.2.1 Creating titles
Titles are created for each \score
block, as well as for the full
input file (or \book
block) and book parts (created by
\bookpart
blocks).
The contents of the titles are taken from the \header
blocks.
The header block for a book supports the following
-
dedication
The dedicatee of the music, centered at the top of the first page.
-
title
The title of the music, centered just below the dedication.
-
subtitle
Subtitle, centered below the title.
-
subsubtitle
Subsubtitle, centered below the subtitle.
-
poet
Name of the poet, flush-left below the subsubtitle.
-
instrument
Name of the instrument, centered below the subsubtitle. Also centered at the top of pages (other than the first page).
-
composer
Name of the composer, flush-right below the subsubtitle.
-
meter
Meter string, flush-left below the poet.
-
arranger
Name of the arranger, flush-right below the composer.
-
piece
Name of the piece, flush-left below the meter.
-
opus
Name of the opus, flush-right below the arranger.
-
breakbefore
This forces the title to start on a new page (set to ##t or ##f).
-
copyright
Copyright notice, centered at the bottom of the first page. To insert the copyright symbol, see Text encoding.
-
tagline
Centered at the bottom of the last page.
Here is a demonstration of the fields available. Note that you may use any Formatting text, commands in the header.
\paper { line-width = 9.0\cm paper-height = 10.0\cm } \book { \header { dedication = "dedicated to me" title = \markup \center-column { "Title first line" "Title second line, longer" } subtitle = "the subtitle," subsubtitle = #(string-append "subsubtitle LilyPond version " (lilypond-version)) poet = "Poet" composer = \markup \center-column { "composer" \small "(1847-1973)" } texttranslator = "Text Translator" meter = \markup { \teeny "m" \tiny "e" \normalsize "t" \large "e" \huge "r" } arranger = \markup { \fontsize #8.5 "a" \fontsize #2.5 "r" \fontsize #-2.5 "r" \fontsize #-5.3 "a" \fontsize #7.5 "nger" } instrument = \markup \bold \italic "instrument" piece = "Piece" } \score { { c'1 } \header { piece = "piece1" opus = "opus1" } } \markup { and now... } \score { { c'1 } \header { piece = "piece2" opus = "opus2" } } }
As demonstrated before, you can use multiple \header
blocks.
When same fields appear in different blocks, the latter is used.
Here is a short example.
\header { composer = "Composer" } \header { piece = "Piece" } \score { \new Staff { c'4 } \header { piece = "New piece" % overwrite previous one } }
If you define the \header
inside the \score
block, then
normally only the piece
and opus
headers will be printed.
Note that the music expression must come before the \header
.
\score { { c'4 } \header { title = "title" % not printed piece = "piece" opus = "opus" } }
You may change this behavior (and print all the headers when defining
\header
inside \score
) by using
\paper{ print-all-headers = ##t }
The default footer is empty, except for the first page, where the
copyright
field from \header
is inserted, and the last
page, where tagline
from \header
is added. The default
tagline is “Music engraving by LilyPond (version)”.2
Headers may be completely removed by setting them to false.
\header { tagline = ##f composer = ##f }
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[ < Creating titles ] | [ Up : Titles and headers ] | [ Reference to page numbers > ] |
3.2.2 Custom titles
A more advanced option is to change the definitions of the following
variables in the \paper
block. The init file
‘../ly/titling-init.ly’ lists the default layout.
-
bookTitleMarkup
This is the title added at the top of the entire output document. Typically, it has the composer and the title of the piece
-
scoreTitleMarkup
This is the title put over a
\score
block. Typically, it has the name of the movement (piece
field).-
oddHeaderMarkup
This is the page header for odd-numbered pages.
-
evenHeaderMarkup
This is the page header for even-numbered pages. If unspecified, the odd header is used instead.
By default, headers are defined such that the page number is on the outside edge, and the instrument is centered.
-
oddFooterMarkup
This is the page footer for odd-numbered pages.
-
evenFooterMarkup
This is the page footer for even-numbered pages. If unspecified, the odd header is used instead.
By default, the footer has the copyright notice on the first, and the tagline on the last page.
The following definition will put the title flush left, and the composer flush right on a single line.
\paper { bookTitleMarkup = \markup { \fill-line { \fromproperty #'header:title \fromproperty #'header:composer } } }
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3.2.3 Reference to page numbers
A particular place of a score can be marked using the \label
command, either at top-level or inside music. This label can then be
referred to in a markup, to get the number of the page where the marked
point is placed, using the \page-ref
markup command.
\header { tagline = ##f } \book { \label #'firstScore \score { { c'1 \pageBreak \mark A \label #'markA c' } } \markup { The first score begins on page \page-ref #'firstScore "0" "?" } \markup { Mark A is on page \page-ref #'markA "0" "?" } }
The \page-ref
markup command takes three arguments:
- the label, a scheme symbol, eg.
#'firstScore
; - a markup that will be used as a gauge to estimate the dimensions of the markup;
- a markup that will be used in place of the page number if the label is not known;
The reason why a gauge is needed is that, at the time markups are interpreted, the page breaking has not yet occurred, so the page numbers are not yet known. To work around this issue, the actual markup interpretation is delayed to a later time; however, the dimensions of the markup have to be known before, so a gauge is used to decide these dimensions. If the book has between 10 and 99 pages, it may be "00", ie. a two digit number.
Predefined commands
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3.2.4 Table of contents
A table of contents is included using the \markuplines \table-of-contents
command. The elements which should appear in the table of contents are
entered with the \tocItem
command, which may be used either at
top-level, or inside a music expression.
\markuplines \table-of-contents \pageBreak \tocItem \markup "First score" \score { { c' % ... \tocItem \markup "Some particular point in the first score" d' % ... } } \tocItem \markup "Second score" \score { { e' % ... } }
The markups which are used to format the table of contents are defined
in the \paper
block. The default ones are tocTitleMarkup
,
for formatting the title of the table, and tocItemMarkup
, for
formatting the toc elements, composed of the element title and page
number. These variables may be changed by the user:
\paper { %% Translate the toc title into French: tocTitleMarkup = \markup \huge \column { \fill-line { \null "Table des matières" \null } \hspace #1 } %% use larger font size tocItemMarkup = \markup \large \fill-line { \fromproperty #'toc:text \fromproperty #'toc:page } }
Note how the toc element text and page number are referred to in
the tocItemMarkup
definition.
New commands and markups may also be defined to build more elaborated table of contents:
- first, define a new markup variable in the
\paper
block - then, define a music function which aims at adding a toc element using this markup paper variable.
In the following example, a new style is defined for entering act names in the table of contents of an opera:
\paper { tocActMarkup = \markup \large \column { \hspace #1 \fill-line { \null \italic \fromproperty #'toc:text \null } \hspace #1 } } tocAct = #(define-music-function (parser location text) (markup?) (add-toc-item! 'tocActMarkup text))
See also
Init files: ‘../ly/toc-init.ly’.
Predefined commands
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3.3 Working with input files
3.3.1 Including LilyPond files | ||
3.3.2 Different editions from one source | ||
3.3.3 Text encoding | ||
3.3.4 Displaying LilyPond notation |
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3.3.1 Including LilyPond files
A large project may be split up into separate files. To refer to another file, use
\include "otherfile.ly"
The line \include "otherfile.ly"
is equivalent to pasting the
contents of ‘otherfile.ly’ into the current file at the place
where the \include
appears. For example, in a large
project you might write separate files for each instrument part
and create a “full score” file which brings together the
individual instrument files. Normally the included file will
define a number of variables which then become available
for use in the full score file. Tagged sections can be
marked in included files to assist in making them usable in
different places in a score, see Different editions from one source.
Files in the current working directory may be referenced by
specifying just the file name after the \include
command.
Files in other locations may be included by giving either a full
path reference or a relative path reference (but use the UNIX
forward slash, /, rather than the DOS/Windows back slash, \, as the
directory separator.) For example, if ‘stuff.ly’ is located
one directory higher than the current working directory, use
\include "../stuff.ly"
or if the included orchestral parts files are all located in a subdirectory called ‘parts’ within the current directory, use
\include "parts/VI.ly" \include "parts/VII.ly" ... etc
Files which are to be included can also contain \include
statements of their own. By default, these second-level
\include
statements are not interpreted until they have
been brought into the main file, so the file names they specify
must all be relative to the directory containing the main file,
not the directory containing the included file. However,
this behavior can be changed by passing the option
-drelative-includes
option at the command line
(or by adding #(ly:set-option 'relative-includes #t)
at the top of the main input file). With relative-includes
set, the path for each \include
command will be taken
relative to the file containing that command. This behavior is
recommended and it will become the default behavior in a future
version of lilypond.
Files can also be included from a directory in a search path specified as an option when invoking LilyPond from the command line. The included files are then specified using just their file name. For example, to compile ‘main.ly’ which includes files located in a subdirectory called ‘parts’ by this method, cd to the directory containing ‘main.ly’ and enter
lilypond --include=parts main.ly
and in main.ly write
\include "VI.ly" \include "VII.ly" ... etc
Files which are to be included in many scores may be placed in
the LilyPond directory ‘../ly’. (The location of this
directory is installation-dependent - see
Other sources of information). These files can then
be included simply by naming them on an \include
statement.
This is how the language-dependent files like ‘english.ly’ are
included.
LilyPond includes a number of files by default when you start
the program. These includes are not apparent to the user, but the
files may be identified by running lilypond --verbose
from
the command line. This will display a list of paths and files that
LilyPond uses, along with much other information. Alternatively,
the more important of these files are discussed in
Other sources of information. These files may be
edited, but changes to them will be lost on installing a new
version of LilyPond.
Some simple examples of using \include
are shown in
Scores and parts.
See also
Learning Manual: Other sources of information, Scores and parts.
Known issues and warnings
If an included file is given a name which is the same as one in LilyPond’s installation files, LilyPond’s file from the installation files takes precedence.
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3.3.2 Different editions from one source
Several mechanisms are available to facilitate the generation of different versions of a score from the same music source. Variables are perhaps most useful for combining lengthy sections of music and/or annotation in various ways, while tags are more useful for selecting one from several alternative shorter sections of music. Whichever method is used, separating the notation from the structure of the score will make it easier to change the structure while leaving the notation untouched.
Using variables | ||
Using tags |
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Using variables
If sections of the music are defined in variables they can be reused in different parts of the score, see pieces with variables Organizing pieces with variables. For example, an a cappella vocal score frequently includes a piano reduction of the parts for rehearsal purposes which is identical to the vocal music, so the music need be entered only once. Music from two variables may be combined on one staff, see Automatic part combining. Here is an example:
sopranoMusic = \relative c'' { a4 b c b8( a)} altoMusic = \relative g' { e4 e e f } tenorMusic = \relative c' { c4 b e d8( c) } bassMusic = \relative c' { a4 gis a d, } allLyrics = \lyricmode {King of glo -- ry } << \new Staff = "Soprano" \sopranoMusic \new Lyrics \allLyrics \new Staff = "Alto" \altoMusic \new Lyrics \allLyrics \new Staff = "Tenor" { \clef "treble_8" \tenorMusic } \new Lyrics \allLyrics \new Staff = "Bass" { \clef "bass" \bassMusic } \new Lyrics \allLyrics \new PianoStaff << \new Staff = "RH" { \set Staff.printPartCombineTexts = ##f \partcombine \sopranoMusic \altoMusic } \new Staff = "LH" { \set Staff.printPartCombineTexts = ##f \clef "bass" \partcombine \tenorMusic \bassMusic } >> >>
Separate scores showing just the vocal parts or just the piano part can be produced by changing just the structural statements, leaving the musical notation unchanged.
For lengthy scores, the variable definitions may be placed in separate files which are then included, see Including LilyPond files.
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Using tags
The \tag #'partA
command marks a music expression
with the name partA.
Expressions tagged in this way can be selected or filtered out by
name later, using either \keepWithTag #'name
or
\removeWithTag #'name
. The result of applying these filters
to tagged music is as follows:
Filter | Result |
---|---|
Tagged music preceded by | Untagged music and music tagged with name is included; music tagged with any other tag name is excluded. |
Tagged music preceded by | Untagged music and music tagged with any tag name other than name is included; music tagged with name is excluded. |
Tagged music not preceded by either | All tagged and untagged music is included. |
The arguments of the \tag
, \keepWithTag
and
\removeWithTag
commands should be a symbol
(such as #'score
or #'part
), followed
by a music expression.
In the following example, we see two versions of a piece of music, one showing trills with the usual notation, and one with trills explicitly expanded:
music = \relative g' { g8. c32 d \tag #'trills {d8.\trill } \tag #'expand {\repeat unfold 3 {e32 d} } c32 d } \score { \keepWithTag #'trills \music } \score { \keepWithTag #'expand \music }
Alternatively, it is sometimes easier to exclude sections of music:
music = \relative g' { g8. c32 d \tag #'trills {d8.\trill } \tag #'expand {\repeat unfold 3 {e32 d} } c32 d } \score { \removeWithTag #'expand \music } \score { \removeWithTag #'trills \music }
Tagged filtering can be applied to articulations, texts, etc. by prepending
-\tag #'your-tag
to an articulation. For example, this would define a note with a conditional fingering indication and a note with a conditional annotation:
c1-\tag #'finger ^4 c1-\tag #'warn ^"Watch!"
Multiple tags may be placed on expressions with multiple
\tag
entries:
music = \relative c'' { \tag #'a \tag #'both { a a a a } \tag #'b \tag #'both { b b b b } } << \keepWithTag #'a \music \keepWithTag #'b \music \keepWithTag #'both \music >>
Multiple \removeWithTag
filters may be applied to a single
music expression to remove several differently named tagged sections:
music = \relative c'' { \tag #'A { a a a a } \tag #'B { b b b b } \tag #'C { c c c c } \tag #'D { d d d d } } { \removeWithTag #'B \removeWithTag #'C \music }
Two or more \keepWithTag
filters applied to a single music
expression will cause all tagged sections to be removed, as
the first filter will remove all tagged sections except the one
named, and the second filter will remove even that tagged section.
See also
Learning Manual: Organizing pieces with variables.
Notation Reference: Automatic part combining, Including LilyPond files.
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3.3.3 Text encoding
LilyPond uses the character repertoire defined by the Unicode consortium and ISO/IEC 10646. This defines a unique name and code point for the character sets used in virtually all modern languages and many others too. Unicode can be implemented using several different encodings. LilyPond uses the UTF-8 encoding (UTF stands for Unicode Transformation Format) which represents all common Latin characters in one byte, and represents other characters using a variable length format of up to four bytes.
The actual appearance of the characters is determined by the glyphs defined in the particular fonts available - a font defines the mapping of a subset of the Unicode code points to glyphs. LilyPond uses the Pango library to layout and render multi-lingual texts.
Lilypond does not perform any input-encoding conversions. This means that any text, be it title, lyric text, or musical instruction containing non-ASCII characters, must be encoded in UTF-8. The easiest way to enter such text is by using a Unicode-aware editor and saving the file with UTF-8 encoding. Most popular modern editors have UTF-8 support, for example, vim, Emacs, jEdit, and GEdit do. All MS Windows systems later than NT use Unicode as their native character encoding, so even Notepad can edit and save a file in UTF-8 format. A more functional alternative for Windows is BabelPad.
If a LilyPond input file containing a non-ASCII character is not saved in UTF-8 format the error message
FT_Get_Glyph_Name () error: invalid argument
will be generated.
Here is an example showing Cyrillic, Hebrew and Portuguese text:
To enter a single character for which the Unicode escape sequence
is known but which is not available in the editor being used, use
\char ##xhhhh
within a \markup
block, where
hhhh
is the hexadecimal code for the character required.
For example, \char ##x03BE
enters the Unicode U+03BE
character, which has the Unicode name “Greek Small Letter Xi”.
Any Unicode hexadecimal code may be substituted, and if all special
characters are entered in this format it is not necessary to save
the input file in UTF-8 format. Of course, a font containing all
such encoded characters must be installed and available to LilyPond.
The following example shows UTF-8 coded characters being used in four places – in a rehearsal mark, as articulation text, in lyrics and as stand-alone text below the score:
\score { \relative c'' { c1 \mark \markup { \char ##x03EE } c1_\markup { \tiny { \char ##x03B1 " to " \char ##x03C9 } } } \addlyrics { O \markup { \concat{ Ph \char ##x0153 be! } } } } \markup { "Copyright 2008--2009" \char ##x00A9 }
To enter the copyright sign in the copyright notice use:
\header { copyright = \markup { \char ##x00A9 "2008" } }
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3.3.4 Displaying LilyPond notation
Displaying a music expression in LilyPond notation can be
done using the music function \displayLilyMusic
. For example,
{ \displayLilyMusic \transpose c a, { c e g a bes } }
will display
{ a, cis e fis g }
By default, LilyPond will print these messages to the console along
with all the other messages. To split up these messages and save
the results of \display{STUFF}
, redirect the output to
a file.
lilypond file.ly >display.txt
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3.4 Controlling output
3.4.1 Extracting fragments of music | ||
3.4.2 Skipping corrected music |
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3.4.1 Extracting fragments of music
It is possible to quote small fragments of a large score directly from the output. This can be compared to clipping a piece of a paper score with scissors.
This is done by defining the measures that need to be cut out separately. For example, including the following definition
\layout { clip-regions = #(list (cons (make-rhythmic-location 5 1 2) (make-rhythmic-location 7 3 4))) }
will extract a fragment starting halfway the fifth measure, ending in
the seventh measure. The meaning of 5 1 2
is: after a 1/2 note
in measure 5, and 7 3 4
after 3 quarter notes in measure 7.
More clip regions can be defined by adding more pairs of rhythmic-locations to the list.
In order to use this feature, LilyPond must be invoked with
-dclip-systems
. The clips are output as EPS files, and are
converted to PDF and PNG if these formats are switched on as well.
For more information on output formats, see Invoking lilypond.
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3.4.2 Skipping corrected music
When entering or copying music, usually only the music near the end (where you are adding notes) is interesting to view and correct. To speed up this correction process, it is possible to skip typesetting of all but the last few measures. This is achieved by putting
showLastLength = R1*5 \score { ... }
in your source file. This will render only the last 5 measures
(assuming 4/4 time signature) of every \score
in the input
file. For longer pieces, rendering only a small part is often an order
of magnitude quicker than rendering it completely. When working on the
beginning of a score you have already typeset (e.g. to add a new part),
the showFirstLength
property may be useful as well.
Skipping parts of a score can be controlled in a more fine-grained
fashion with the property Score.skipTypesetting
. When it is
set, no typesetting is performed at all.
This property is also used to control output to the MIDI file. Note that it skips all events, including tempo and instrument changes. You have been warned.
\relative c'' { c8 d \set Score.skipTypesetting = ##t e e e e e e e e \set Score.skipTypesetting = ##f c d b bes a g c2 }
In polyphonic music, Score.skipTypesetting
will affect all
voices and staves, saving even more time.
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3.5 MIDI output
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a standard for connecting and controlling digital instruments. A MIDI file is a series of notes in a number of tracks. It is not an actual sound file; you need special software to translate between the series of notes and actual sounds.
Pieces of music can be converted to MIDI files, so you can listen to what was entered. This is convenient for checking the music; octaves that are off or accidentals that were mistyped stand out very much when listening to the MIDI output.
The midi output allocates a channel for each staff, and one for global settings. Therefore the midi file should not have more than 15 staves (or 14 if you do not use drums). Other staves will remain silent.
3.5.1 Creating MIDI files | ||
3.5.2 MIDI block | ||
3.5.3 What goes into the MIDI output? | ||
3.5.4 Repeats in MIDI | ||
3.5.5 Controlling MIDI dynamics | ||
3.5.6 Percussion in MIDI |
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3.5.1 Creating MIDI files
To create a MIDI output file from a LilyPond input file, add a
\midi
block to a score, for example,
\score { ...music... \midi { } }
If there is a \midi
block in a \score
with no
\layout
block, only MIDI output will be produced. When
notation is needed too, a \layout
block must be also be
present.
\score { ...music... \midi { } \layout { } }
Pitches, rhythms, ties, dynamics, and tempo changes are interpreted and translated correctly to the MIDI output. Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume range. Crescendi and decrescendi make the volume vary linearly between their two extremes. The effect of dynamic markings on the MIDI output can be removed completely, see MIDI block.
The initial tempo and later tempo changes can be specified
with the \tempo
command within the music notation. These
are reflected in tempo changes in the MIDI output. This command
will normally result in the metronome mark being printed, but this
can be suppressed, see Metronome marks. An alternative way
of specifying the inital or overall MIDI tempo is described below,
see MIDI block.
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Instrument names
The MIDI instrument to be used is specified by setting the
Staff.midiInstrument
property to the instrument name.
The name should be chosen from the list in MIDI instruments.
\new Staff { \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"glockenspiel" ...notes... }
\new Staff \with {midiInstrument = #"cello"} { ...notes... }
If the selected instrument does not exactly match an instrument from
the list of MIDI instruments, the Grand Piano ("acoustic grand"
)
instrument is used.
Selected Snippets
Changing MIDI output to one channel per voice
When outputting MIDI, the default behavior is for each staff to represent one MIDI channel, with all the voices on a staff amalgamated. This minimizes the risk of running out of MIDI channels, since there are only 16 available per track.
However, by moving the Staff_performer
to the Voice
context, each voice on a staff can have its own MIDI channel, as is
demonstrated by the following example: despite being on the same staff,
two MIDI channels are created, each with a different
midiInstrument
.
\score { \new Staff << \new Voice \relative c''' { \set midiInstrument = #"flute" \voiceOne \key g \major \time 2/2 r2 g-"Flute" ~ g fis ~ fis4 g8 fis e2 ~ e4 d8 cis d2 } \new Voice \relative c'' { \set midiInstrument = #"clarinet" \voiceTwo b1-"Clarinet" a2. b8 a g2. fis8 e fis2 r } >> \layout { } \midi { \context { \Staff \remove "Staff_performer" } \context { \Voice \consists "Staff_performer" } \context { \Score tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 2) } } }
Known issues and warnings
Changes in the MIDI volume take place only on starting a note, so crescendi and decrescendi cannot affect the volume of a single note.
Not all midi players correctly handle tempo changes in the midi output. Players that are known to work include MS Windows Media Player and timidity.
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3.5.2 MIDI block
A \midi
block must appear within a score block if MIDI output
is required. It is analogous to the layout block, but somewhat
simpler. Often, the \midi
block is left empty, but it
can contain context rearrangements, new context definitions or code
to set the values of properties. For example, the following will
set the initial tempo exported to a MIDI file without causing a tempo
indication to be printed:
\score { ...music... \midi { \context { \Score tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 4) } } }
In this example the tempo is set to 72 quarter note beats per minute. This kind of tempo specification cannot take a dotted note length as an argument. If one is required, break the dotted note into smaller units. For example, a tempo of 90 dotted quarter notes per minute can be specified as 270 eighth notes per minute:
tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 270 8)
Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as those
within a \layout
block. Translation modules for sound are
called performers. The contexts for MIDI output are defined in
‘../ly/performer-init.ly’,
see
Other sources of information.
For example, to remove the effect of dynamics
from the MIDI output, insert the following lines in the
\midi{ }
block.
\midi { ... \context { \Voice \remove "Dynamic_performer" } }
MIDI output is created only when a \midi
block is included
within a score block defined with a \score
command. If it
is placed within an explicitly instantiated score context (i.e.
within a \new Score
block) the file will fail. To solve
this, enclose the \new Score
and the \midi
commands
in a \score
block.
\score { \new Score { …notes… } \midi { } }
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3.5.3 What goes into the MIDI output?
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Supported in MIDI
The following items of notation are reflected in the MIDI output:
- Pitches
- Microtones (See Accidentals. Rendering needs a player that supports pitch bend.)
- Chords entered as chord names
- Rhythms entered as note durations, including tuplets
- Tremolos entered without ‘
:
[number]’ - Ties
- Dynamic marks
- Crescendi, decrescendi over multiple notes
- Tempo changes entered with a tempo marking
- Lyrics
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Unsupported in MIDI
The following items of notation have no effect on the MIDI output:
- Rhythms entered as annotations, e.g. swing
- Tempo changes entered as annotations with no tempo marking
- Staccato and other articulations and ornamentations
- Slurs and Phrasing slurs
- Crescendi, decrescendi over a single note
- Tremolos entered with ‘
:
[number]’ - Figured bass
- Microtonal chords
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3.5.4 Repeats in MIDI
With a few minor additions, all types of repeats can be represented
in the MIDI output. This is achieved by applying the
\unfoldRepeats
music function. This function changes all
repeats to unfold repeats.
\unfoldRepeats { \repeat tremolo 8 {c'32 e' } \repeat percent 2 { c''8 d'' } \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'} \alternative { { g' a' a' g' } {f' e' d' c' } } } \bar "|."
When creating a score file using \unfoldRepeats
for MIDI,
it is necessary to make two \score
blocks: one for MIDI
(with unfolded repeats) and one for notation (with volta, tremolo,
and percent repeats). For example,
\score { ..music.. \layout { .. } } \score { \unfoldRepeats ..music.. \midi { .. } }
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3.5.5 Controlling MIDI dynamics
MIDI dynamics are implemented by the Dynamic_performer which lives by default in the Voice context. It is possible to control the overall MIDI volume, the relative volume of dynamic markings and the relative volume of different instruments.
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Dynamic marks
Dynamic marks are translated to a fixed fraction of the available
MIDI volume range. The default fractions range from 0.25 for
ppppp to 0.95 for fffff. The set of dynamic
marks and the associated fractions can be seen in
‘../scm/midi.scm’, see
Other sources of information.
This set of fractions may be changed or extended by providing a
function which takes a dynamic mark as its argument and returns the
required fraction, and setting
Score.dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction
to this function.
For example, if a rinforzando dynamic marking,
\rfz
, is required, this will not by default
have any effect on the MIDI volume, as this dynamic marking is not
included in the default set. Similarly, if a new dynamic marking
has been defined with make-dynamic-script
that too will not
be included in the default set. The following example shows how the
MIDI volume for such dynamic markings might be added. The Scheme
function sets the fraction to 0.9 if a dynamic mark of rfz is
found, or calls the default function otherwise.
#(define (myDynamics dynamic) (if (equal? dynamic "rfz") 0.9 (default-dynamic-absolute-volume dynamic))) \score { \new Staff { \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"cello" \set Score.dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction = #myDynamics \new Voice { \relative c'' { a\pp b c-\rfz } } } \layout {} \midi {} }
Alternatively, if the whole table of fractions needs to be redefined, it would be better to use the default-dynamic-absolute-volume procedure in ‘../scm/midi.scm’ and the associated table as a model. The final example in this section shows how this might be done.
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Overall MIDI volume
The minimum and maximum overall volume of MIDI dynamic markings is
controlled by setting the properties midiMinimumVolume
and
midiMaximumVolume
at the Score
level. These
properties have an effect only on dynamic marks, so if they
are to apply from the start of the score a dynamic mark must be
placed there. The fraction corresponding to each dynamic mark is
modified with this formula
midiMinimumVolume + (midiMaximumVolume - midiMinimumVolume) * fraction
In the following example the dynamic range of the overall MIDI volume is limited to the range 0.2 - 0.5.
\score { << \new Staff { \key g \major \time 2/2 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute" \new Voice \relative c''' { r2 g\mp g fis ~ fis4 g8 fis e2 ~ e4 d8 cis d2 } } \new Staff { \key g \major \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"clarinet" \new Voice \relative c'' { b1\p a2. b8 a g2. fis8 e fis2 r } } >> \layout { } \midi { \context { \Score tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 2) midiMinimumVolume = #0.2 midiMaximumVolume = #0.5 } } }
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Equalizing different instruments (i)
If the minimum and maximum MIDI volume properties are set in
the Staff
context the relative volumes of the MIDI
instruments can be controlled. This gives a basic instrument
equalizer, which can enhance the quality of the MIDI output
remarkably.
In this example the volume of the clarinet is reduced relative to the volume of the flute. There must be a dynamic mark on the first note of each instrument for this to work correctly.
\score { << \new Staff { \key g \major \time 2/2 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute" \set Staff.midiMinimumVolume = #0.7 \set Staff.midiMaximumVolume = #0.9 \new Voice \relative c''' { r2 g\mp g fis ~ fis4 g8 fis e2 ~ e4 d8 cis d2 } } \new Staff { \key g \major \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"clarinet" \set Staff.midiMinimumVolume = #0.3 \set Staff.midiMaximumVolume = #0.6 \new Voice \relative c'' { b1\p a2. b8 a g2. fis8 e fis2 r } } >> \layout { } \midi { \context { \Score tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 2) } } }
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Equalizing different instruments (ii)
If the MIDI minimum and maximum volume properties are not set LilyPond will, by default, apply a small degree of equalization to a few instruments. The instruments and the equalization applied are shown in the table instrument-equalizer-alist in ‘../scm/midi.scm’.
This basic default equalizer can be replaced by setting
instrumentEqualizer
in the Score
context to a new
Scheme procedure which accepts a MIDI instrument name as its only
argument and returns a pair of fractions giving the minimum and
maximum volumes to be applied to that instrument. This replacement
is done in the same way as shown for resetting the
dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction
at the start of this section.
The default equalizer, default-instrument-equalizer, in
‘../scm/midi.scm’ shows how such a procedure might be written.
The following example sets the relative flute and clarinet volumes to the same values as the previous example.
#(define my-instrument-equalizer-alist '()) #(set! my-instrument-equalizer-alist (append '( ("flute" . (0.7 . 0.9)) ("clarinet" . (0.3 . 0.6))) my-instrument-equalizer-alist)) #(define (my-instrument-equalizer s) (let ((entry (assoc s my-instrument-equalizer-alist))) (if entry (cdr entry)))) \score { << \new Staff { \key g \major \time 2/2 \set Score.instrumentEqualizer = #my-instrument-equalizer \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute" \new Voice \relative c''' { r2 g\mp g fis ~ fis4 g8 fis e2 ~ e4 d8 cis d2 } } \new Staff { \key g \major \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"clarinet" \new Voice \relative c'' { b1\p a2. b8 a g2. fis8 e fis2 r } } >> \layout { } \midi { \context { \Score tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 2) } } }
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3.5.6 Percussion in MIDI
Percussion instruments are generally notated in a DrumStaff
context and when notated in this way they are outputted correctly
to MIDI channel 10, but some pitched percussion instruments,
like the xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, timpani, etc., are
treated like “normal” instruments and music for these instruments
should be entered in a normal Staff
context, not a
DrumStaff
context, to obtain the correct MIDI output.
Some non-pitched percussion sounds included in the general MIDI
standard, like melodic tom, taiko drum, synth drum, etc., cannot
be reached via MIDI channel 10, so the notation for such
instruments should also be entered in a normal Staff
context, using suitable normal pitches.
Many percussion instruments are not included in the general MIDI standard, e.g. castanets. The easiest, although unsatisfactory, method of producing some MIDI output when writing for such instruments is to substitute the nearest sound from the standard set.
Known issues and warnings
Because the general MIDI standard does not contain rim shots, the sidestick is used for this purpose instead.
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4. Spacing issues
The global paper layout is determined by three factors: the page layout, the line breaks, and the spacing. These all influence each other. The choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set. This influences where line breaks are chosen, and thus ultimately, how many pages a piece of music takes.
Globally speaking, this procedure happens in four steps: first, flexible distances (‘springs’) are chosen, based on durations. All possible line breaking combinations are tried, and a ‘badness’ score is calculated for each. Then the height of each possible system is estimated. Finally, a page breaking and line breaking combination is chosen so that neither the horizontal nor the vertical spacing is too cramped or stretched.
Settings which influence layout may be placed in two blocks.
The \paper {...}
block is placed outside any
\score {...}
blocks and contains settings that
relate to the entire document. The \layout {...}
block is placed within a \score {...}
block and
contains settings for that particular score. If you have
only one \score {...}
block the two have the same
effect. In general the commands shown in this chapter can
be placed in either.
4.1 Paper and pages | ||
4.2 Music layout | ||
4.3 Breaks | ||
4.4 Vertical spacing | ||
4.5 Horizontal spacing | ||
4.6 Fitting music onto fewer pages |
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4.1 Paper and pages
This section deals with the boundaries that define the area within which music can be printed.
4.1.1 Paper size | ||
4.1.2 Page formatting |
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4.1.1 Paper size
Two functions are available for changing the paper size:
set-default-paper-size
and set-paper-size
.
set-default-paper-size
must be placed in the toplevel
scope, and set-paper-size
must be placed in a \paper
block:
#(set-default-paper-size "a4")
\paper { #(set-paper-size "a4") }
set-default-paper-size
sets the size of all pages, whereas
set-paper-size
only sets the size of the pages that the
\paper
block applies to. For example, if the \paper
block is at the top of the file, then it will apply the paper size
to all pages. If the \paper
block is inside a
\book
, then the paper size will only apply to that book.
Common paper sizes are available, including a4
,
letter
, legal
, and 11x17
(also known as
tabloid). Many more paper sizes are supported by default. For
details, see ‘scm/paper.scm’, and search for the
definition of paper-alist
.
Note: The default paper size is |
Extra sizes may be added by editing the definition of
paper-alist
in the initialization file
‘scm/paper.scm’, however they will be overridden on a
subsequent install.
If the symbol 'landscape
is supplied as an argument to
set-default-paper-size
, pages will be rotated by 90
degrees, and wider line widths will be set accordingly.
#(set-default-paper-size "a6" 'landscape)
Setting the paper size will adjust a number of \paper
variables, such as margins. To use a particular paper size with
altered \paper
variables, set the paper size before setting
the variables.
See also
Installed Files: ‘scm/paper.scm’.
Snippets: Spacing.
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4.1.2 Page formatting
Margins, headers, and footers and other layout variables are automatically set according to the paper size.
This section lists and describes a number of paper variables that may be altered.
Vertical dimensions | ||
Horizontal dimensions | ||
Other layout variables |
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Vertical dimensions
These variables are used to set different vertical dimensions on a page:
-
after-title-space
-
The amount of space between the title and the first system. Default:
5\mm
. -
before-title-space
-
Amount of space between the last system of the previous piece and the title of the next. Default:
10\mm
. -
between-system-padding
-
The minimum amount of white space that will always be present between the bottom-most symbol of one system, and the top-most of the next system. Default:
4\mm
.Increasing this will put systems whose bounding boxes almost touch farther apart.
-
between-system-space
-
The distance between systems. It is the ideal distance between the center of the bottom staff of one system and the center of the top staff of the next system. Default:
20\mm
.Increasing this value will provide a more even appearance of the page at the cost of using more vertical space.
-
between-title-space
-
Amount of space between consecutive titles (e.g., the title of the book and the title of a piece). Default:
2\mm
. -
bottom-margin
-
The margin between footer and bottom of the page. Default:
6\mm
. -
foot-separation
-
Distance between the bottom-most music system and the page footer. Default:
4\mm
. -
head-separation
-
Distance between the top-most music system and the page header. Default:
4\mm
. -
page-top-space
-
Distance from the top of the printable area to the center of the first staff. This only works for staves that are vertically small. Big staves are set with the top of their bounding box aligned to the top of the printable area. Default:
12\mm
. -
paper-height
-
The height of the page. Default: the height of the current paper size. For details, see Paper size.
-
top-margin
-
The margin between header and top of the page. Default:
5\mm
.
Selected Snippets
The header and footer are created by the functions make-footer and make-header, defined in \paper. The default implementations are in ly/paper-defaults.ly and ly/titling-init.ly.
The page layout itself is done by two functions in the \paper block, page-music-height and page-make-stencil. The former tells the line-breaking algorithm how much space can be spent on a page, the latter creates the actual page given the system to put on it.
You can define paper block values in Scheme. In that case mm, in, pt, and cm are variables defined in paper-defaults.ly with values in millimeters. That is why the value 2 cm must be multiplied in the example
\paper { #(define bottom-margin (* 2 cm)) }
Example:
\paper{ paper-width = 2\cm top-margin = 3\cm bottom-margin = 3\cm ragged-last-bottom = ##t }
This second example centers page numbers at the bottom of every page.
\paper { print-page-number = ##t print-first-page-number = ##t oddHeaderMarkup = \markup \fill-line { " " } evenHeaderMarkup = \markup \fill-line { " " } oddFooterMarkup = \markup { \fill-line { \bold \fontsize #3 \on-the-fly #print-page-number-check-first \fromproperty #'page:page-number-string } } evenFooterMarkup = \markup { \fill-line { \bold \fontsize #3 \on-the-fly #print-page-number-check-first \fromproperty #'page:page-number-string } } }
You can also define these values in Scheme. In that case mm
,
in
, pt
, and cm
are variables defined in
‘paper-defaults.ly’ with values in millimeters. That is why the
value must be multiplied in the example
\paper { #(define bottom-margin (* 2 cm)) }
The header and footer are created by the functions make-footer
and make-header
, defined in \paper
. The default
implementations are in ‘ly/paper-defaults.ly’ and
‘ly/titling-init.ly’.
The page layout itself is done by two functions in the
\paper
block, page-music-height
and
page-make-stencil
. The former tells the line-breaking algorithm
how much space can be spent on a page, the latter creates the actual
page given the system to put on it.
See also
Notation Reference: Vertical spacing between systems.
Snippets: Spacing.
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Horizontal dimensions
Note: If |
There are a few variables that determine the horizontal dimensions on a page:
-
horizontal-shift
-
The amount that all systems (including titles and system separators) are shifted to the right. Default:
0.0
. -
indent
-
The level of indentation for the first system in a score. Default:
paper-width
divided by14
, as determined byset-default-paper-size
orset-paper-size
. -
left-margin
-
The margin between the left edge of the page and the beginning of each system. Default:
10\mm
, as determined byset-default-paper-size
orset-paper-size
. -
line-width
-
The width of music systems. Default:
paper-width
minus20\mm
, as determined byset-default-paper-size
orset-paper-size
. -
paper-width
-
The width of the page. Default: the width of the current paper size. For details, see Paper size.
-
short-indent
-
The level of indentation for all systems in a score besides the first system. Default:
0
, as determined byset-default-paper-size
orset-paper-size
.
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
Known issues and warnings
The option right-margin
is defined but doesn’t set the
right margin yet. The value for the right margin has to be
defined by adjusting the values of left-margin
and
line-width
.
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Other layout variables
These variables can be used to adjust page layout in general.
-
auto-first-page-number
-
The page breaking algorithm is affected by the first page number being odd or even. If set to true, the page breaking algorithm will decide whether to start with an odd or even number. This will result in the first page number remaining as is or being increased by one. Default:
##f
. -
blank-last-page-force
-
The penalty for ending the score on an odd-numbered page. Default:
0
. -
blank-page-force
-
The penalty for having a blank page in the middle of a score. This is not used by
ly:optimal-breaking
since it will never consider blank pages in the middle of a score. Default:5
. -
first-page-number
-
The value of the page number on the first page. Default:
#1
. -
page-breaking-between-system-padding
-
Tricks the page breaker into thinking that
between-system-padding
is set to something different than it really is. For example, if this variable is set to something substantially larger thanbetween-system-padding
, then the page-breaker will put fewer systems on each page. Default: unset. -
page-count
-
The number of pages to be used for a score. Default: unset.
-
page-limit-inter-system-space
-
If set to true, limits space between systems on a page with a lot of space left. Default:
##f
. For details, see Vertical spacing between systems. -
page-limit-inter-system-space-factor
-
The factor used by
page-limit-inter-system-space
. Default:1.4
. For details, see Vertical spacing between systems. -
page-spacing-weight
-
The relative importance of page (vertical) spacing and line (horizontal) spacing. High values will make page spacing more important. Default:
#10
. -
print-all-headers
-
If set to true, this will print all headers for each \score in the output. Normally only the piece and opus header variables are printed. Default:
##f
. -
print-first-page-number
-
If set to true, a page number is printed on the first page. Default:
##f
. -
print-page-number
-
If set to false, page numbers are not printed. Default:
##t
. -
ragged-bottom
-
If set to true, systems will not spread vertically across the page. This does not affect the last page. Default:
##f
.This should be set to true for pieces that have only two or three systems per page, for example orchestral scores.
-
ragged-last
-
If set to true, the last system in the score will not fill the line width. Instead the last system ends at its natural horizontal length. Default:
##f
. -
ragged-last-bottom
-
If set to false, systems will spread vertically across the last page. Default:
##t
.Pieces that amply fill two pages or more should have this set to true.
It also affects the last page of book parts, ie parts of a book created with
\bookpart
blocks. -
ragged-right
-
If set to true, systems will not fill the line width. Instead, systems end at their natural horizontal length. Default:
##f
.If the score has only one system, the default value is
##t
. -
system-separator-markup
-
A markup object that is inserted between systems. This is often used for orchestral scores. Default: unset.
The markup command
\slashSeparator
is provided as a sensible default, for example -
system-count
-
The number of systems to be used for a score. Default: unset.
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
Known issues and warnings
The default page header puts the page number and the instrument
field from the \header
block on a line.
The titles (from the \header{}
section) are treated as a
system, so ragged-bottom
and ragged-last-bottom
will
add space between the titles and the first system of the score.
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4.2 Music layout
4.2.1 Setting the staff size | ||
4.2.2 Score layout |
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4.2.1 Setting the staff size
The default staff size is set to 20 points. This may be changed in two ways:
To set the staff size globally for all scores in a file (or
in a book
block, to be precise), use set-global-staff-size
.
#(set-global-staff-size 14)
This sets the global default size to 14pt staff height and scales all fonts accordingly.
To set the staff size individually for each score, use
\score{ ... \layout{ #(layout-set-staff-size 15) } }
The Feta font provides musical symbols at eight different sizes. Each font is tuned for a different staff size: at a smaller size the font becomes heavier, to match the relatively heavier staff lines. The recommended font sizes are listed in the following table:
font name
staff height (pt)
staff height (mm)
use
feta11
11.22
3.9
pocket scores
feta13
12.60
4.4
feta14
14.14
5.0
feta16
15.87
5.6
feta18
17.82
6.3
song books
feta20
20
7.0
standard parts
feta23
22.45
7.9
feta26
25.2
8.9
These fonts are available in any sizes. The context property
fontSize
and the layout property staff-space
(in
StaffSymbol) can be used to tune the size for individual
staves. The sizes of individual staves are relative to the global size.
See also
Notation Reference: Selecting notation font size.
Snippets: Spacing.
Known issues and warnings
layout-set-staff-size
does not change the distance between the
staff lines.
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[ < Setting the staff size ] | [ Up : Music layout ] | [ Breaks > ] |
4.2.2 Score layout
While \paper
contains settings that relate to the page formatting
of the whole document, \layout
contains settings for score-specific
layout.
\layout { indent = 2.0\cm \context { \Staff \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-6 . 6) } \context { \Voice \override TextScript #'padding = #1.0 \override Glissando #'thickness = #3 } }
See also
Notation Reference: Changing context default settings.
Snippets: Spacing.
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[ < Score layout ] | [ Up : Spacing issues ] | [ Line breaking > ] |
4.3 Breaks
4.3.1 Line breaking | ||
4.3.2 Page breaking | ||
4.3.3 Optimal page breaking | ||
4.3.4 Optimal page turning | ||
4.3.5 Minimal page breaking | ||
4.3.6 Explicit breaks | ||
4.3.7 Using an extra voice for breaks |
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[ < Breaks ] | [ Up : Breaks ] | [ Page breaking > ] |
4.3.1 Line breaking
Line breaks are normally determined automatically. They are chosen
so that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and consecutive
lines have similar density. Occasionally you might want to
override the automatic breaks; you can do this by specifying
\break
. This will force a line break at this point. However,
line breaks can only occur at the end of ‘complete’ bars, i.e.,
where there are no notes or tuplets left ‘hanging’ over the bar
line. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
you can force an invisible bar line by entering \bar ""
,
although again there must be no notes left hanging over in any of
the staves at this point, or it will be ignored.
The opposite command, \noBreak
, forbids a line break at the
bar line where it is inserted.
The most basic settings influencing line spacing are indent
and line-width
. They are set in the \layout
block.
They control the indentation of the first line of music, and the
lengths of the lines.
If ragged-right
is set to true in the \layout
block,
then systems end at their natural horizontal length, instead of
being spread horizontally to fill the whole line. This is useful
for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural
spacing is.
The option ragged-last
is similar to ragged-right
,
but affects only the last line of the piece.
\layout { indent = #0 line-width = #150 ragged-last = ##t }
For line breaks at regular intervals use \break
separated by
skips and repeated with \repeat
. For example, this would
cause the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) to be broken
every 4 measures, and only there:
<< \repeat unfold 7 { s1 \noBreak s1 \noBreak s1 \noBreak s1 \break } the real music >>
A linebreaking configuration can be saved as a .ly
file
automatically. This allows vertical alignments to be stretched to
fit pages in a second formatting run. This is fairly new and
complicated. More details are available in
Spacing.
Predefined commands
See also
Internals Reference: LineBreakEvent.
Snippets: Spacing.
Known issues and warnings
Line breaks can only occur if there is a ‘proper’ bar line. A note which is hanging over a bar line is not proper, such as
c4 c2 << c2 {s4 \break } >> % this does nothing c2 c4 | % a break here would work c4 c2 c4 ~ \break % as does this break c4 c2 c4
This can be avoided by removing the Forbid_line_break_engraver
.
Note that manually forced line breaks have to be added in parallel
with the music.
\new Voice \with { \remove Forbid_line_break_engraver } { c4 c2 << c2 {s4 \break } >> % now the break is allowed c2 c4 }
Similarly, line breaks are normally forbidden when beams cross bar
lines. This behavior can be changed by setting
\override Beam #'breakable = ##t
.
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[ < Line breaking ] | [ Up : Breaks ] | [ Optimal page breaking > ] |
4.3.2 Page breaking
The default page breaking may be overridden by inserting
\pageBreak
or \noPageBreak
commands. These commands are
analogous to \break
and \noBreak
. They should be
inserted at a bar line. These commands force and forbid a page-break
from happening. Of course, the \pageBreak
command also forces
a line break.
The \pageBreak
and \noPageBreak
commands may also be
inserted at top-level, between scores and top-level markups.
There are also analogous settings to ragged-right
and
ragged-last
which have the same effect on vertical spacing:
ragged-bottom
and ragged-last-bottom
. If set to
##t
the systems on all pages or just the last page
respectively will not be justified vertically.
For more details see Vertical spacing.
Page breaks are computed by the page-breaking
function. LilyPond
provides three algorithms for computing page breaks,
ly:optimal-breaking
, ly:page-turn-breaking
and
ly:minimal-breaking
. The default is ly:optimal-breaking
,
but the value can be changed in the \paper
block:
\paper{ #(define page-breaking ly:page-turn-breaking) }
The old page breaking algorithm is called
optimal-page-breaks
. If you are having trouble with the new page
breakers, you can enable the old one as a workaround.
When a book has many scores and pages, the page breaking problem may be
difficult to solve, requiring large processing time and memory. To ease
the page breaking process, \bookpart
blocks are used to divide
the book into several parts: the page breaking occurs separately on each
part. Different page breaking functions may also be used in different
book parts.
\bookpart { \header { subtitle = "Preface" } \paper { %% In a part consisting mostly of text, %% ly:minimal-breaking may be prefered #(define page-breaking ly:minimal-breaking) } \markup { … } … } \bookpart { %% In this part, consisting of music, the default optimal %% page breaking function is used. \header { subtitle = "First movement" } \score { … } … }
Predefined commands
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Page breaking ] | [ Up : Breaks ] | [ Optimal page turning > ] |
4.3.3 Optimal page breaking
The ly:optimal-breaking
function is LilyPond’s default method of
determining page breaks. It attempts to find a page breaking that minimizes
cramping and stretching, both horizontally and vertically. Unlike
ly:page-turn-breaking
, it has no concept of page turns.
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Optimal page breaking ] | [ Up : Breaks ] | [ Minimal page breaking > ] |
4.3.4 Optimal page turning
Often it is necessary to find a page breaking configuration so that there is
a rest at the end of every second page. This way, the musician can turn the
page without having to miss notes. The ly:page-turn-breaking
function
attempts to find a page breaking minimizing cramping and stretching, but with
the additional restriction that it is only allowed to introduce page turns
in specified places.
There are two steps to using this page breaking function. First, you
must enable it in the \paper
block, as explained in Page breaking. Then you must tell the function where you would like to allow
page breaks.
There are two ways to achieve the second step. First, you can specify each
potential page turn manually, by inserting \allowPageTurn
into your
input file at the appropriate places.
If this is too tedious, you can add a Page_turn_engraver
to a Staff or
Voice context. The Page_turn_engraver
will scan the context for
sections without notes (note that it does not scan for rests; it scans for
the absence of notes. This is so that single-staff polyphony with rests in one
of the parts does not throw off the Page_turn_engraver
). When it finds
a sufficiently long section without notes, the Page_turn_engraver
will
insert an \allowPageTurn
at the final bar line in that section, unless
there is a ‘special’ bar line (such as a double bar), in which case the
\allowPageTurn
will be inserted at the final ‘special’ bar line in
the section.
The Page_turn_engraver
reads the context property
minimumPageTurnLength
to determine how long a note-free section must
be before a page turn is considered. The default value for
minimumPageTurnLength
is #(ly:make-moment 1 1)
. If you want
to disable page turns, you can set it to something very large.
\new Staff \with { \consists "Page_turn_engraver" } { a4 b c d | R1 | % a page turn will be allowed here a4 b c d | \set Staff.minimumPageTurnLength = #(ly:make-moment 5 2) R1 | % a page turn will not be allowed here a4 b r2 | R1*2 | % a page turn will be allowed here a1 }
The Page_turn_engraver
detects volta repeats. It will only allow a page
turn during the repeat if there is enough time at the beginning and end of the
repeat to turn the page back. The Page_turn_engraver
can also disable
page turns if the repeat is very short. If you set the context property
minimumRepeatLengthForPageTurn
then the Page_turn_engraver
will
only allow turns in repeats whose duration is longer than this value.
The page turning commands, \pageTurn
, \noPageTurn
and
\allowPageTurn
, may also be used at top-level, between scores and
top-level markups.
Predefined commands
\pageTurn
,
\noPageTurn
,
\allowPageTurn
.
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
Known issues and warnings
There should only be one Page_turn_engraver
in a score. If there is more
than one, they will interfere with each other.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Optimal page turning ] | [ Up : Breaks ] | [ Explicit breaks > ] |
4.3.5 Minimal page breaking
The ly:minimal-breaking
function performs minimal computations to
calculate the page breaking: it fills a page with as many systems as
possible before moving to the next one. Thus, it may be preferred for
scores with many pages, where the other page breaking functions could be
too slow or memory demanding, or a lot of texts. It is enabled using:
\paper { #(define page-breaking ly:minimal-breaking) }
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Minimal page breaking ] | [ Up : Breaks ] | [ Using an extra voice for breaks > ] |
4.3.6 Explicit breaks
Lily sometimes rejects explicit \break
and \pageBreak
commands. There are two commands to override this behavior:
\override NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-permission = ##f \override NonMusicalPaperColumn #'page-break-permission = ##f
When line-break-permission
is overridden to false, Lily will insert
line breaks at explicit \break
commands and nowhere else. When
page-break-permission
is overridden to false, Lily will insert
page breaks at explicit \pageBreak
commands and nowhere else.
\paper { indent = #0 ragged-right = ##t ragged-bottom = ##t } \score { \new Score \with { \override NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-permission = ##f \override NonMusicalPaperColumn #'page-break-permission = ##f } { \new Staff { \repeat unfold 2 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \break \repeat unfold 4 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \break \repeat unfold 6 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \break \repeat unfold 8 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \pageBreak \repeat unfold 8 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \break \repeat unfold 6 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \break \repeat unfold 4 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \break \repeat unfold 2 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } } } }
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Explicit breaks ] | [ Up : Breaks ] | [ Vertical spacing > ] |
4.3.7 Using an extra voice for breaks
Line- and page-breaking information usually appears within note entry directly.
\new Score { \new Staff { \repeat unfold 2 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 } \break \repeat unfold 3 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 } } }
This makes \break
and \pageBreak
commands easy to enter but mixes
music entry with information that specifies how music should lay out
on the page. You can keep music entry and line- and page-breaking
information in two separate places by introducing an extra voice to
contain the breaks. This extra voice
contains only skips together with \break
, pageBreak
and other
breaking layout information.
\new Score { \new Staff << \new Voice { s1 * 2 \break s1 * 3 \break s1 * 6 \break s1 * 5 \break } \new Voice { \repeat unfold 2 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 } \repeat unfold 3 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 } \repeat unfold 6 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 } \repeat unfold 5 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 } } >> }
This pattern becomes especially helpful when overriding
line-break-system-details
and the other useful but long properties of
NonMusicalPaperColumnGrob
, as explained in Vertical spacing.
\new Score { \new Staff << \new Voice { \overrideProperty "Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn" #'line-break-system-details #'((Y-offset . 0)) s1 * 2 \break \overrideProperty "Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn" #'line-break-system-details #'((Y-offset . 35)) s1 * 3 \break \overrideProperty "Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn" #'line-break-system-details #'((Y-offset . 70)) s1 * 6 \break \overrideProperty "Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn" #'line-break-system-details #'((Y-offset . 105)) s1 * 5 \break } \new Voice { \repeat unfold 2 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 } \repeat unfold 3 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 } \repeat unfold 6 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 } \repeat unfold 5 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 } } >> }
See also
Notation Reference: Vertical spacing.
Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Using an extra voice for breaks ] | [ Up : Spacing issues ] | [ Vertical spacing inside a system > ] |
4.4 Vertical spacing
Vertical spacing is controlled by three things: the amount of space available (i.e., paper size and margins), the amount of space between systems, and the amount of space between staves inside a system.
4.4.1 Vertical spacing inside a system | ||
4.4.2 Vertical spacing between systems | ||
4.4.3 Explicit staff and system positioning | ||
4.4.4 Two-pass vertical spacing | ||
4.4.5 Vertical collision avoidance |
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Vertical spacing ] | [ Up : Vertical spacing ] | [ Vertical spacing between systems > ] |
4.4.1 Vertical spacing inside a system
The height of each system is determined automatically. To prevent staves from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together. This reduces the amount of space each system requires, and may result in having more systems per page.
Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make staves maintain a
distance, their vertical size is padded. This is done with the
property minimum-Y-extent
. When applied to a
VerticalAxisGroup, it controls the size of a horizontal
line, such as a staff or a line of lyrics. minimum-Y-extent
takes a pair of numbers, so
if you want to make it smaller than its default #'(-4 . 4)
then you could set
\override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-3 . 3)
This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 3 staff spaces on
either side of the center staff line. The value (-3 . 3)
is
interpreted as an interval, where the center line is the 0, so the
first number is generally negative. The numbers need not match;
for example, the staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting
it to (-6 . 4)
.
After page breaks are determined, the vertical spacing within each
system is reevaluated in order to fill the page more evenly; if a page
has space left over, systems are stretched in order to fill that space.
The amount of stretching can be configured though the max-stretch
property of the
VerticalAlignment grob. By default,
max-stretch
is set to zero, disabling stretching. To enable
stretching, a sane value for max-stretch
is ly:align-interface::calc-max-stretch
.
In some situations, you may want to stretch most of a system while
leaving some parts fixed. For example, if a piano part occurs in the
middle of an orchestral score, you may want to leave the piano staves
close to each other while stretching the rest of the score. The
keep-fixed-while-stretching
property of
VerticalAxisGroup can be used to achieve this. When set
to ##t
, this property keeps its staff (or line of lyrics) from
moving relative to the one directly above it. In the example above,
you would override keep-fixed-while-stretching
to ##t
in
the second piano staff:
#(set-default-paper-size "a6") #(set-global-staff-size 14.0) \book { \paper { ragged-last-bottom = ##f } \new Score \with { \override VerticalAlignment #'max-stretch = #ly:align-interface::calc-max-stretch } { \new GrandStaff << \new StaffGroup << \new Staff {c' d' e' f'} \new Staff {c' d' e' f'} \new Staff {c' d' e' f'} >> \new PianoStaff << \new Staff {c' d' e' f'} \new Staff \with { \override VerticalAxisGroup #'keep-fixed-while-stretching = ##t } {c' d' e' f'} >> \new StaffGroup << \new Staff {c' d' e' f'} \new Staff {c' d' e' f'} >> >> } }
Vertical alignment of staves is handled by the
VerticalAlignment
object. The context parameters
specifying the vertical extent are described in connection with
the Axis_group_engraver
.
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
Internals Reference: VerticalAlignment, Axis_group_engraver.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Vertical spacing inside a system ] | [ Up : Vertical spacing ] | [ Explicit staff and system positioning > ] |
4.4.2 Vertical spacing between systems
Space between systems are controlled by four \paper
variables,
\paper { between-system-space = 1.5\cm between-system-padding = #1 ragged-bottom=##f ragged-last-bottom=##f }
When only a couple of flat systems are placed on a page, the resulting
vertical spacing may be non-elegant: one system at the top of the page,
and the other at the bottom, with a huge gap between them. To avoid this
situation, the space added between the systems can be limited. This
feature is activated by setting to #t
the
page-limit-inter-system-space
variable in the \paper
block. The paper variable page-limit-inter-system-space-factor
determines how much the space can be increased: for instance, the value
1.3
means that the space can be 30% larger than what it would be
on a ragged-bottom page.
In the following example, if the inter system space were not limited,
the second system of page 1 would be placed at the page bottom. By
activating the space limitation, the second system is placed closer to
the first one. By setting page-limit-inter-system-space-factor
to
1
, the spacing would the same as on a ragged-bottom page, like
the last one.
#(set-default-paper-size "a6") \book { \paper { page-limit-inter-system-space = ##t page-limit-inter-system-space-factor = 1.3 oddFooterMarkup = \markup "page bottom" evenFooterMarkup = \markup "page bottom" oddHeaderMarkup = \markup \fill-line { "page top" \fromproperty #'page:page-number-string } evenHeaderMarkup = \markup \fill-line { "page top" \fromproperty #'page:page-number-string } } \new Staff << \repeat unfold 4 { g'4 g' g' g' \break } { s1*2 \pageBreak } >> }
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Vertical spacing between systems ] | [ Up : Vertical spacing ] | [ Two-pass vertical spacing > ] |
4.4.3 Explicit staff and system positioning
One way to understand the VerticalAxisGroup
and \paper
settings explained in the previous two sections is as a collection of
different settings that primarily concern the amount of vertical padding
different staves and systems running down the page.
It is possible to approach vertical spacing in a different way using
NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-system-details
. Where
VerticalAxisGroup
and \paper
settings specify vertical padding,
NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-system-details
specifies exact
vertical positions on the page.
NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-system-details
accepts an associative
list of five different settings:
-
X-offset
-
Y-offset
-
alignment-offsets
-
alignment-extra-space
-
fixed-alignment-extra-space
Grob overrides, including the overrides for NonMusicalPaperColumn
below, can occur in any of three different places in an input file:
- in the middle of note entry directly
- in a
\context
block - in the
\with
block
When we override NonMusicalPaperColumn
, we use the usual
\override
command in \context
blocks and in the
\with
block. On the other hand, when we override
NonMusicalPaperColumn
in the middle of note entry,
use the special \overrideProperty
command. Here are some
example NonMusicalPaperColumn
overrides with the special
\overrideProperty
command:
\overrideProperty NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-system-details #'((X-offset . 20)) \overrideProperty NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-system-details #'((Y-offset . 40)) \overrideProperty NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-system-details #'((X-offset . 20) (Y-offset . 40)) \override NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-system-details #'((alignment-offsets . (0 -15))) \override NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-system-details #'((X-offset . 20) (Y-offset . 40) (alignment-offsets . (0 -15)))
To understand how each of these different settings work, we begin by looking at an example that includes no overrides at all.
This score isolates line- and page-breaking information in a dedicated voice. This technique of creating a breaks voice will help keep layout separate from music entry as our example becomes more complicated. See Using an extra voice for breaks.
Explicit \breaks
evenly divide the music into six measures per
line. Vertical spacing results from LilyPond’s defaults. To set
the vertical startpoint of each system explicitly, we can set
the Y-offset
pair in the line-break-system-details
attribute of the NonMusicalPaperColumn
grob:
Note that line-break-system-details
takes an associative list of
potentially many values, but that we set only one value here. Note,
too, that the Y-offset
property here determines the exact vertical
position on the page at which each new system will render.
Now that we have set the vertical startpoint of each system
explicitly, we can also set the vertical startpoint of each staff
within each system manually. We do this using the alignment-offsets
subproperty of line-break-system-details
.
Note that here we assign two different values to the
line-break-system-details
attribute of the
NonMusicalPaperColumn
grob. Though the
line-break-system-details
attribute alist accepts many
additional spacing parameters (including, for example, a corresponding
X-offset
pair), we need only set the Y-offset
and
alignment-offsets
pairs to control the vertical startpoint of
every system and every staff. Finally, note that alignment-offsets
specifies the vertical positioning of staves but not of staff groups.
Some points to consider:
- When using
alignment-offsets
, lyrics count as a staff. - The units of the numbers passed to
X-offset
,Y-offset
andalignment-offsets
are interpreted as multiples of the distance between adjacent staff lines. Positive values move staves and lyrics up, negative values move staves and lyrics down. - Because the
NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-system-details
settings given here allow the positioning of staves and systems anywhere on the page, it is possible to violate paper or margin boundaries or even to print staves or systems on top of one another. Reasonable values passed to these different settings will avoid this.
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Explicit staff and system positioning ] | [ Up : Vertical spacing ] | [ Vertical collision avoidance > ] |
4.4.4 Two-pass vertical spacing
Note: Two-pass vertical spacing is deprecated and will be removed in a future version of LilyPond. Systems are now stretched automatically in a single pass. See Vertical spacing inside a system. |
In order to automatically stretch systems so that they should fill the space left on a page, a two-pass technique can be used:
- In the first pass, the amount of vertical space used to increase the height of each system is computed and dumped to a file.
- In the second pass, spacing inside the systems are stretched according to the data in the page layout file.
The ragged-bottom
property adds space between systems, while
the two-pass technique adds space between staves inside a system.
To allow this behavior, a tweak-key
variable has to be set in
each score \layout
block, and the tweaks included in each score
music, using the \scoreTweak
music function.
%% include the generated page layout file: \includePageLayoutFile \score { \new StaffGroup << \new Staff << %% Include this score tweaks: \scoreTweak "scoreA" { \clef french c''1 \break c''1 } >> \new Staff { \clef soprano g'1 g'1 } \new Staff { \clef mezzosoprano e'1 e'1 } \new Staff { \clef alto g1 g1 } \new Staff { \clef bass c1 c1 } >> \header { piece = "Score with tweaks" } %% Define how to name the tweaks for this score: \layout { #(define tweak-key "scoreA") } }
For the first pass, the dump-tweaks
option should be set to
generate the page layout file.
lilypond -dbackend=null -d dump-tweaks <file>.ly lilypond <file>.ly
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Two-pass vertical spacing ] | [ Up : Vertical spacing ] | [ Horizontal spacing > ] |
4.4.5 Vertical collision avoidance
Intuitively, there are some objects in musical notation that belong to the staff and there are other objects that should be placed outside the staff. Objects belonging outside the staff include things such as rehearsal marks, text and dynamic markings (from now on, these will be called outside-staff objects). LilyPond’s rule for the vertical placement of outside-staff objects is to place them as close to the staff as possible but not so close that they collide with another object.
LilyPond uses the outside-staff-priority
property to determine
whether a grob is an outside-staff object: if outside-staff-priority
is a number, the grob is an outside-staff object. In addition,
outside-staff-priority
tells LilyPond in which order the objects
should be placed.
First, LilyPond places all the objects that do not belong outside
the staff. Then it sorts the outside-staff objects according to their
outside-staff-priority
(in increasing order). One by one, LilyPond
takes the outside-staff objects and places them so that they do
not collide with any objects that have already been placed. That
is, if two outside-staff grobs are competing for the same space, the one
with the lower outside-staff-priority
will be placed closer to
the staff.
c4_"Text"\pp r2. \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-priority = #1 c4_"Text"\pp % this time the text will be closer to the staff r2. % by setting outside-staff-priority to a non-number, % we disable the automatic collision avoidance \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-priority = ##f \once \override DynamicLineSpanner #'outside-staff-priority = ##f c4_"Text"\pp % now they will collide
The vertical padding between an outside-staff object and the
previously-positioned grobs can be controlled with
outside-staff-padding
.
\once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-padding = #0 a'^"This text is placed very close to the note" \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-padding = #3 c^"This text is padded away from the previous text" c^"This text is placed close to the previous text"
By default, outside-staff objects are placed only to avoid
a horizontal collision with previously-positioned grobs. This
can lead to situations in which objects are placed very close to each
other horizontally. The vertical spacing between staffs can
also be set so that outside staff objects are interleaved.
Setting outside-staff-horizontal-padding
causes an object to be offset vertically so that such a situation
doesn’t occur.
% the markup is too close to the following note c4^"Text" c4 c''2 % setting outside-staff-horizontal-padding fixes this R1 \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-horizontal-padding = #1 c,,4^"Text" c4 c''2
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Vertical collision avoidance ] | [ Up : Spacing issues ] | [ Horizontal spacing overview > ] |
4.5 Horizontal spacing
4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview | ||
4.5.2 New spacing area | ||
4.5.3 Changing horizontal spacing | ||
4.5.4 Line length | ||
4.5.5 Proportional notation |
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Horizontal spacing ] | [ Up : Horizontal spacing ] | [ New spacing area > ] |
4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
The spacing engine translates differences in durations into stretchable
distances (‘springs’) of differing lengths. Longer durations get
more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest durations get a
fixed amount of space (which is controlled by
shortest-duration-space
in the
SpacingSpanner
object). The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a
duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by
spacing-increment
) of space to the note.
For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter, and 8th notes; the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW). The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
Normally, spacing-increment
is set to 1.2 staff space, which is
approximately the width of a note head, and
shortest-duration-space
is set to 2.0, meaning that the
shortest note gets 2.4 staff space (2.0 times the
spacing-increment
) of horizontal space. This space is counted
from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest notes are generally
followed by one NHW of space.
If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single 32nd note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd, thus adding 1 NHW to every note. To prevent this, the shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score, but rather the one which occurs most frequently.
The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common shortest
duration is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
an 8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run
lilypond
with the --verbose
option.
These durations may also be customized. If you set the
common-shortest-duration
in
SpacingSpanner, then
this sets the base duration for spacing. The maximum duration for this
base (normally an 8th), is set through base-shortest-duration
.
Notes that are even shorter than the common shortest note are followed by a space that is proportional to their duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by half a NHW:
c2 c4. c8 c4. c16[ c] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
In the introduction (see
Engraving), it was explained that stem
directions influence spacing. This is controlled with the
stem-spacing-correction
property in the
NoteSpacing, object. These are generated for every
Voice context. The StaffSpacing
object
(generated in
Staff context) contains the same property
for controlling the stem/bar line spacing. The following example shows
these corrections, once with default settings, and once with
exaggerated corrections:
Proportional notation is supported; see Proportional notation.
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
Internals Reference: SpacingSpanner, NoteSpacing, StaffSpacing, SeparationItem.
Known issues and warnings
There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing. The following work-around may be used to insert extra space into a score.
\once \override Score.SeparationItem #'padding = #1
No work-around exists for decreasing the amount of space.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Horizontal spacing overview ] | [ Up : Horizontal spacing ] | [ Changing horizontal spacing > ] |
4.5.2 New spacing area
New sections with different spacing parameters can be started with
newSpacingSection
. This is useful when there are
sections with a different notions of long and short notes.
In the following example, the time signature change introduces a new section, and hence the 16ths notes are spaced wider.
\time 2/4 c4 c8 c c8 c c4 c16[ c c8] c4 \newSpacingSection \time 4/16 c16[ c c8]
The \newSpacingSection
command creates a new
SpacingSpanner
object, and hence new \override
s
may be used in that location.
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
Internals Reference: SpacingSpanner.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < New spacing area ] | [ Up : Horizontal spacing ] | [ Line length > ] |
4.5.3 Changing horizontal spacing
Horizontal spacing may be altered with the
base-shortest-duration
property. Here
we compare the same music; once without altering
the property, and then altered. Larger values
of ly:make-moment
will produce smaller
music. Note that ly:make-moment
constructs
a duration, so 1 4
is a longer duration
than 1 16
.
\score { \relative c'' { g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 d e f | g4 g g2 | g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 e g g | c,1 | d4 d d d | d4 e f2 | e4 e e e | e4 f g2 | g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 e g g | c,1 | } }
\score { \relative c'' { g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 d e f | g4 g g2 | g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 e g g | c,1 | d4 d d d | d4 e f2 | e4 e e e | e4 f g2 | g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 e g g | c,1 | } \layout { \context { \Score \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 16) } } }
Selected Snippets
By default, spacing in tuplets depends on various non-duration
factors (such as accidentals, clef changes, etc). To disregard
such symbols and force uniform equal-duration spacing, use
Score.SpacingSpanner #'uniform-stretching
. This
property can only be changed at the beginning of a score,
\new Score \with { \override SpacingSpanner #'uniform-stretching = ##t } << \new Staff{ \times 4/5 { c8 c8 c8 c8 c8 } c8 c8 c8 c8 } \new Staff{ c8 c8 c8 c8 \times 4/5 { c8 c8 c8 c8 c8 } } >>
When strict-note-spacing
is set, notes are spaced without
regard for clefs, bar lines, and grace notes,
\override Score.SpacingSpanner #'strict-note-spacing = ##t \new Staff { c8[ c \clef alto c \grace { c16[ c] } c8 c c] c32[ c32] }
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Changing horizontal spacing ] | [ Up : Horizontal spacing ] | [ Proportional notation > ] |
4.5.4 Line length
The most basic settings influencing the spacing are indent
and
line-width
. They are set in the \layout
block. They
control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
the lines.
If ragged-right
is set to true in the \layout
block, then
systems ends at their natural horizontal length, instead of being spread
horizontally to fill the whole line. This is useful for
short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural spacing is.
The option ragged-last
is similar to ragged-right
, but
only affects the last line of the piece. No restrictions are put on
that line. The result is similar to formatting text paragraphs. In a
paragraph, the last line simply takes its natural horizontal length.
\layout { indent = #0 line-width = #150 ragged-last = ##t }
See also
Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Line length ] | [ Up : Horizontal spacing ] | [ Fitting music onto fewer pages > ] |
4.5.5 Proportional notation
LilyPond supports proportional notation, a type of horizontal spacing in which each note consumes an amount of horizontal space exactly equivalent to its rhythmic duration. This type of proportional spacing is comparable to horizontal spacing on top of graph paper. Some late 20th- and early 21st-century scores use proportional notation to clarify complex rhythmic relationships or to facilitate the placement of timelines or other graphics directly in the score.
LilyPond supports five different settings for proportional notation, which may be used together or alone:
-
proportionalNotationDuration
-
uniform-stretching
-
strict-note-spacing
-
\remove Separating_line_group_engraver
-
\override PaperColumn #'used = ##t
In the examples that follow, we explore these five different proportional notation settings and examine how these settings interact.
We start with the following one-measure example, which uses classical spacing with ragged-right turned on.
\new Score << \new RhythmicStaff { c'2 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 \times 4/5 { c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 } } >>
Notice that the half note which begins the measure takes up far less than half of the horizontal space of the measure. Likewise, the sixteenth notes and sixteenth-note quintuplets (or twentieth notes) which end the measure together take up far more than half the horizontal space of the measure.
In classical engraving, this spacing may be exactly what we want because we can borrow horizontal space from the half note and conserve horizontal space across the measure as a whole.
On the other hand, if we want to insert a measured timeline or other graphic above or below our score, we need proportional notation. We turn proportional notation on with the proportionalNotationDuration setting.
\new Score \with { proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 20) } << \new RhythmicStaff { c'2 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 \times 4/5 { c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 } } >>
The half note at the beginning of the measure and the faster notes in the second half of the measure now occupy equal amounts of horizontal space. We could place a measured timeline or graphic above or below this example.
The proportionalNotationDuration
setting is a context setting that
lives in Score
. Recall that context settings appear in one of
three locations in our input file – in a \with
block, in a
\context
block, or directly in music entry
preceded by the \set
command. As with all
context settings, users can pick which of the three different
locations they would like to set proportionalNotationDuration
.
The proportionalNotationDuration
setting takes a single argument,
which is the reference duration against which all music will be
spaced. The LilyPond Scheme function make-moment takes two arguments
– a numerator and denominator which together express some fraction of
a whole note. The call #(ly:make-moment 1 20)
therefore produces a
reference duration of a twentieth note. The values
#(ly:make-moment 1 16)
, #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
, and
#(ly:make-moment 3 97)
are all possible as well.
How do we select the right reference duration to pass to
proportionalNotationDuration
? Usually by a process of trial and error,
beginning with a duration close to the fastest (or smallest) duration
in the piece. Smaller reference durations space music loosely; larger
reference durations space music tightly.
\new Score \with { proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 8) } << \new RhythmicStaff { c'2 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 \times 4/5 { c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 } } >> \new Score \with { proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 16) } << \new RhythmicStaff { c'2 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 \times 4/5 { c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 } } >> \new Score \with { proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 32) } << \new RhythmicStaff { c'2 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 \times 4/5 { c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 } } >>
Note that too large a reference duration – such as the eighth note, above – spaces music too tightly and can cause note head collisions. Note also that proportional notation in general takes up more horizontal space that does classical spacing. Proportional spacing provides rhythmic clarity at the expense of horizontal space.
Next we examine how to optimally space overlapping tuplets.
We start by examining what happens to our original example, with classical spacing, when we add a second staff with a different type of tuplet.
\new Score << \new RhythmicStaff { c'2 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 \times 4/5 { c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 } } \new RhythmicStaff { \times 8/9 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } } >>
The spacing is bad because the evenly notes of the bottom staff do not
stretch uniformly. Classical engraving includes very few complex
triplets and so classical engraving rules can generate this type of
result. Setting proportionalNotationDuration
remedies this
situation considerably.
\new Score \with { proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 20) } << \new RhythmicStaff { c'2 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 \times 4/5 { c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 } } \new RhythmicStaff { \times 8/9 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } } >>
But if we look very carefully we can see that notes of the second half
of the 9-tuplet space ever so slightly more widely than do the notes
of the first half of the 9-tuplet. To ensure uniform stretching, we
turn on uniform-stretching
, which is a property of
SpacingSpanner
.
\new Score \with { proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 20) \override SpacingSpanner #'uniform-stretching = ##t } << \new RhythmicStaff { c'2 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 \times 4/5 { c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 } } \new RhythmicStaff { \times 8/9 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } } >>
Our two-staff example now spaces exactly, our rhythmic relationships are visually clear, and we can include a measured timeline or graphic if we want.
Note that the LilyPond’s proportional notation package expects that all proportional scores set the SpacingSpanner’s ’uniform-stretching attribute to ##t. Setting proportionalNotationDuration without also setting the SpacingSpanner’s ’uniform-stretching attribute to ##t will, for example, cause Skips to consume an incorrect amount of horizontal space.
The SpacingSpanner is an abstract grob that lives in the Score context. As with our settings of proportionalNotationDuration, overrides to the SpacingSpanner can occur in any of three different places in our input file – in the Score \with block, in a Score \context block, or in note entry directly.
There is by default only one SpacingSpanner
per Score
. This
means that, by default, uniform-stretching
is either turned on for the
entire score or turned off for the entire score. We can, however,
override this behavior and turn on different spacing features at
different places in the score. We do this with the command
\newSpacingSection
. See New spacing area, for more info.
Next we examine the effects of the Separating_line_group_engraver
and
see why proportional scores frequently remove this engraver. The following
example shows that there is a small amount of “preferatory” space
just before the first note in each system.
\paper { indent = #0 } \new Staff { c'1 \break c'1 }
The amount of this preferatory space is the same whether after a time
signature, a key signature or a clef. Separating_line_group_engraver
is responsible for this space. Removing Separating_line_group_engraver
reduces this space to zero.
\paper { indent = #0 } \new Staff \with { \remove Separating_line_group_engraver } { c'1 \break c'1 }
Nonmusical elements like time signatures, key signatures, clefs and accidentals are problematic in proportional notation. None of these elements has rhythmic duration. But all of these elements consume horizontal space. Different proportional scores approach these problems differently.
It may be possible to avoid spacing problems with key signatures simply by not having any. This is a valid option since most proportional scores are contemporary music. The same may be true of time signatures, especially for those scores that include a measured timeline or other graphic. But these scores are exceptional and most proportional scores include at least some time signatures. Clefs and accidentals are even more essential.
So what strategies exist for spacing nonmusical elements in a
proportional context? One good option is the strict-note-spacing
property of SpacingSpanner
. Compare the two scores below:
\new Staff { \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 16) c''8 c''8 c''8 \clef alto d'8 d'2 } \new Staff { \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 16) \override Score.SpacingSpanner #'strict-note-spacing = ##t c''8 c''8 c''8 \clef alto d'8 d'2 }
Both scores are proportional, but the spacing in the first score is too loose because of the clef change. The spacing of the second score remains strict, however, because strict-note-spacing is turned on. Turning on strict-note-spacing causes the width of time signatures, key signatures, clefs and accidentals to play no part in the spacing algorithm.
In addition to the settings given here, there are other settings that frequently appear in proportional scores. These include:
-
\override SpacingSpanner #'strict-grace-spacing = ##t
-
tupletFullLength = ##t
-
\override Beam #'breakable = ##t
-
\override Glissando #'breakable = ##t
-
\override TextSpanner #'breakable = ##t
-
\remove Forbid_line_break_engraver in the Voice context
These settings space grace notes strictly, extend tuplet brackets to mark both rhythmic start- and stop-points, and allow spanning elements to break across systems and pages. See the respective parts of the manual for these related settings.
See also
Notation Reference: New spacing area.
Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Proportional notation ] | [ Up : Spacing issues ] | [ Displaying spacing > ] |
4.6 Fitting music onto fewer pages
Sometimes you can end up with one or two staves on a second (or third, or fourth...) page. This is annoying, especially if you look at previous pages and it looks like there is plenty of room left on those.
When investigating layout issues, annotate-spacing
is an
invaluable tool. This command prints the values of various layout
spacing variables; for more details see the following section,
Displaying spacing.
4.6.1 Displaying spacing | ||
4.6.2 Changing spacing |
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Fitting music onto fewer pages ] | [ Up : Fitting music onto fewer pages ] | [ Changing spacing > ] |
4.6.1 Displaying spacing
To graphically display the dimensions of vertical layout variables
that may be altered for page formatting, set
annotate-spacing
in the \paper
block:
#(set-default-paper-size "a6" 'landscape) \book { \score { { c4 } } \paper { annotate-spacing = ##t } }
All layout dimensions are displayed in staff-spaces, regardless
of the units specified in the \paper
or \layout
block.
In the above example, paper-height
has a value of 59.75
staff-spaces
, and the staff-size
is 20 points (the
default value). Note that:
1 point | = (25.4/72.27) mm |
1 staff-space | = ( |
= ( |
In this case, one staff-space
is approximately equal to
1.757mm. Thus the paper-height
measurement of 59.75
staff-spaces
is equivalent to 105 millimeters, the height
of a6
paper in landscape orientation. The pairs
(a,b) are intervals, where a is the lower
edge and b the upper edge of the interval.
See also
Setting the staff size Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Changing defaults >> ] | ||
[ < Displaying spacing ] | [ Up : Fitting music onto fewer pages ] | [ Changing defaults > ] |
4.6.2 Changing spacing
The output of annotate-spacing
reveals vertical dimensions
in great detail. For details about modifying margins and other
layout variables, see Page formatting.
Other than margins, there are a few other options to save space:
-
Force systems to move as close together as possible (to fit as
many systems as possible onto a page) while being spaced so that
there is no blank space at the bottom of the page.
\paper { between-system-padding = #0.1 between-system-space = #0.1 ragged-last-bottom = ##f ragged-bottom = ##f }
-
Force the number of systems. For example, if the default layout
has 11 systems, the following assignment will force a layout with
10 systems.
\paper { system-count = #10 }
-
Avoid (or reduce) objects that increase the vertical size of a
system. For example, volta repeats (or alternate repeats) require
extra space. If these repeats are spread over two systems, they
will take up more space than one system with the volta repeats and
another system without. For example, dynamics that ‘stick out’ of
a system can be moved closer to the staff:
e4 c g\f c \override DynamicText #'extra-offset = #'( -2.2 . 2.0) e4 c g\f c
-
Alter the horizontal spacing via
SpacingSpanner
. For more details, see Changing horizontal spacing. The following example illustrates the default spacing:\score { \relative c'' { g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 d e f | g4 g g2 | g4 e e2 | } }
The next example modifies
common-shortest-duration
from a value of1/4
to1/2
. The quarter note is the most common and shortest duration in this example, so by making this duration longer, a ‘squeezing’ effect occurs:\score { \relative c'' { g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 d e f | g4 g g2 | g4 e e2 | } \layout { \context { \Score \override SpacingSpanner #'common-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 2) } } }
The
common-shortest-duration
property cannot be modified dynamically, so it must always be placed in a\context
block so that it applies to the whole score.
See also
Notation Reference: Page formatting, Changing horizontal spacing.
Snippets: Spacing.
[ << Spacing issues ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Changing spacing ] | [ Up : Top ] | [ Interpretation contexts > ] |
5. Changing defaults
The purpose of LilyPond’s design is to provide the finest quality output by default. Nevertheless, it may happen that you need to change this default layout. The layout is controlled through a large number of ‘knobs and switches’ collectively called ‘properties’. A tutorial introduction to accessing and modifying these properties can be found in the Learning Manual, see Tweaking output. This should be read first. This chapter covers similar ground, but in a style more appropriate to a reference manual.
The definitive description of the controls available for tuning can be found in a separate document: the Internals Reference. That manual lists all the variables, functions and options available in LilyPond. It is written as a HTML document, which is available on-line, and is also included with the LilyPond documentation package.
Internally, LilyPond uses Scheme (a LISP dialect) to provide
infrastructure. Overriding layout decisions in effect accesses the
program internals, which requires Scheme input. Scheme elements are
introduced in a .ly
file with the hash mark
#
.3
5.1 Interpretation contexts | ||
5.2 Explaining the Internals Reference | ||
5.3 Modifying properties | ||
5.4 Useful concepts and properties | ||
5.5 Advanced tweaks |
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Changing defaults ] | [ Up : Changing defaults ] | [ Contexts explained > ] |
5.1 Interpretation contexts
This section describes what contexts are, and how to modify them.
5.1.1 Contexts explained | ||
5.1.2 Creating contexts | ||
5.1.3 Modifying context plug-ins | ||
5.1.4 Changing context default settings | ||
5.1.5 Defining new contexts | ||
5.1.6 Aligning contexts |
See also
Learning Manual: Contexts and engravers.
Installed files: ‘ly/engraver-init.ly’, ‘ly/performer-init.ly’.
Snippets: Contexts and engravers.
Internals Reference: Contexts, Engravers and Performers.
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Interpretation contexts ] | [ Up : Interpretation contexts ] | [ Score - the master of all contexts > ] |
5.1.1 Contexts explained
Contexts are arranged hierarchically:
Score - the master of all contexts | ||
Top-level contexts - staff containers | ||
Intermediate-level contexts - staves | ||
Bottom-level contexts - voices |
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Contexts explained ] | [ Up : Contexts explained ] | [ Top-level contexts - staff containers > ] |
Score - the master of all contexts
This is the top level notation context. No other context can contain a Score context. By default the Score context handles the administration of time signatures and makes sure that items such as clefs, time signatures, and key-signatures are aligned across staves.
A Score context is instantiated implicitly when a
\score {…}
or \layout {…}
block is
processed, or explicitly when a \new Score
command is
executed.
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Score - the master of all contexts ] | [ Up : Contexts explained ] | [ Intermediate-level contexts - staves > ] |
Top-level contexts - staff containers
StaffGroup
Groups staves while adding a bracket on the left side, grouping
the staves together. The bar lines of the contained staves are
connected vertically. StaffGroup
only consists of a collection
of staves, with a bracket in front and spanning bar lines.
ChoirStaff
Identical to StaffGroup
except that the bar lines of the
contained staves are not connected vertically.
GrandStaff
A group of staves, with a brace on the left side, grouping the staves together. The bar lines of the contained staves are connected vertically.
PianoStaff
Just like GrandStaff
, but with support for instrument names
to the left of each system.
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Top-level contexts - staff containers ] | [ Up : Contexts explained ] | [ Bottom-level contexts - voices > ] |
Intermediate-level contexts - staves
Staff
Handles clefs, bar lines, keys, accidentals. It can contain
Voice
contexts.
RhythmicStaff
Like Staff
but for printing rhythms. Pitches are ignored;
the notes are printed on one line.
TabStaff
Context for generating tablature. By default lays the music expression out as a guitar tablature, printed on six lines.
DrumStaff
Handles typesetting for percussion. Can contain DrumVoice
VaticanaStaff
Same as Staff
, except that it is designed for typesetting
a piece in gregorian style.
MensuralStaff
Same as Staff
, except that it is designed for typesetting
a piece in mensural style.
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Intermediate-level contexts - staves ] | [ Up : Contexts explained ] | [ Creating contexts > ] |
Bottom-level contexts - voices
Voice-level contexts initialise certain properties and start appropriate engravers. Being bottom-level contexts, they cannot contain other contexts.
Voice
Corresponds to a voice on a staff. This context handles the conversion of dynamic signs, stems, beams, super- and sub-scripts, slurs, ties, and rests. You have to instantiate this explicitly if you require multiple voices on the same staff.
VaticanaVoice
Same as Voice
, except that it is designed for typesetting
a piece in gregorian style.
MensuralVoice
Same as Voice
, with modifications for typesetting a piece in
mensural style.
Lyrics
Corresponds to a voice with lyrics. Handles the printing of a single line of lyrics.
DrumVoice
The voice context used in a percussion staff.
FiguredBass
The context in which BassFigure
objects are created from
input entered in \figuremode
mode.
TabVoice
The voice context used within a TabStaff
context. Usually
left to be created implicitly.
ChordNames
Typesets chord names.
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[ < Bottom-level contexts - voices ] | [ Up : Interpretation contexts ] | [ Modifying context plug-ins > ] |
5.1.2 Creating contexts
For scores with only one voice and one staff, contexts are created automatically. For more complex scores, it is necessary to create them by hand. There are three commands that do this.
-
The easiest command is
\new
, and it also the quickest to type. It is prepended to a music expression, for example\new type music expression
where type is a context name (like
Staff
orVoice
). This command creates a new context, and starts interpreting the music expression with that.A practical application of
\new
is a score with many staves. Each part that should be on its own staff, is preceded with\new Staff
.<< \new Staff { c4 c } \new Staff { d4 d } >>
The
\new
command may also give a name to the context,\new type = id music
However, this user specified name is only used if there is no other context already earlier with the same name.
-
Like
\new
, the\context
command also directs a music expression to a context object, but gives the context an explicit name. The syntax is\context type = id music
This form will search for an existing context of type type called id. If that context does not exist yet, a new context with the specified name is created. This is useful if the context is referred to later on. For example, when setting lyrics the melody is in a named context
\context Voice = "tenor" music
so the texts can be properly aligned to its notes,
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenor" lyrics
Another possible use of named contexts is funneling two different music expressions into one context. In the following example, articulations and notes are entered separately,
music = { c4 c4 } arts = { s4-. s4-> }
They are combined by sending both to the same
Voice
context,<< \new Staff \context Voice = "A" \music \context Voice = "A" \arts >>
With this mechanism, it is possible to define an Urtext (original edition), with the option to put several distinct articulations on the same notes.
-
The third command for creating contexts is
\context type music
This is similar to
\context
with= id
, but matches any context of type type, regardless of its given name.This variant is used with music expressions that can be interpreted at several levels. For example, the
\applyOutput
command (see Running a function on all layout objects). Without an explicit\context
, it is usually applied toVoice
\applyOutput #'context #function % apply to Voice
To have it interpreted at the
Score
orStaff
level use these forms\applyOutput #'Score #function \applyOutput #'Staff #function
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[ < Creating contexts ] | [ Up : Interpretation contexts ] | [ Changing context default settings > ] |
5.1.3 Modifying context plug-ins
Notation contexts (like Score
and Staff
) not only
store properties,
they also contain plug-ins called ‘engravers’ that create notation
elements. For example, the Voice
context contains a
Note_head_engraver
and the Staff
context contains a
Key_signature_engraver
.
For a full a description of each plug-in, see Engravers and Performers. Every context described in Contexts lists the engravers used for that context.
It can be useful to shuffle around these plug-ins. This is done by
starting a new context with \new
or \context
, and
modifying it,
\new context \with { \consists … \consists … \remove … \remove … etc. } { ..music.. }
where the … should be the name of an engraver. Here is a simple
example which removes Time_signature_engraver
and
Clef_engraver
from a Staff
context,
<< \new Staff { f2 g } \new Staff \with { \remove "Time_signature_engraver" \remove "Clef_engraver" } { f2 g2 } >>
In the second staff there are no time signature or clef symbols. This is a rather crude method of making objects disappear since it will affect the entire staff. This method also influences the spacing, which may or may not be desirable. More sophisticated methods of blanking objects are shown in Visibility and color of objects.
The next example shows a practical application. Bar lines and time
signatures are normally synchronized across the score. This is done
by the Timing_translator
and Default_bar_line_engraver
.
This plug-in keeps an administration of time signature, location
within the measure, etc. By moving these engraver from Score
to
Staff
context, we can have a score where each staff has its own
time signature.
\new Score \with { \remove "Timing_translator" \remove "Default_bar_line_engraver" } << \new Staff \with { \consists "Timing_translator" \consists "Default_bar_line_engraver" } { \time 3/4 c4 c c c c c } \new Staff \with { \consists "Timing_translator" \consists "Default_bar_line_engraver" } { \time 2/4 c4 c c c c c } >>
Known issues and warnings
Usually the order in which the engravers are specified does not matter, but in a few special cases the order is important, for example where one engraver writes a property and another reads it, or where one engraver creates a grob and another must process it. The order in which the engravers are specified is the order in which they are called to carry out their processing.
The following orderings are important: the
Bar_engraver
must normally be first, and
the New_fingering_engraver
must come before
the Script_column_engraver
. There may be others
with ordering dependencies.
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[ < Modifying context plug-ins ] | [ Up : Interpretation contexts ] | [ Defining new contexts > ] |
5.1.4 Changing context default settings
The context settings which are to be used by default in
Score
, Staff
and Voice
contexts may be specified
in a \layout
block, as illustrated in the following example.
The \layout
block should be placed within the \score
block to which it is to apply, but outside any music.
Note that the \set
command itself and the context must be
omitted when the context default values are specified in this way:
\score { \relative c'' { a4^"Really small, thicker stems, no time signature" a a a a a a a } \layout { \context { \Staff fontSize = #-4 \override Stem #'thickness = #4.0 \remove "Time_signature_engraver" } } }
In this example, the \Staff
command specifies that the
subsequent specifications are to be applied to all staves within
this score block.
Modifications can be made to the Score
context or all
Voice
contexts in a similar way.
Known issues and warnings
It is not possible to collect context changes in a variable and apply
them to a \context
definition by referring to that variable.
The \RemoveEmptyStaffContext
will overwrite your current
\Staff
settings. If you wish to change the defaults for a
staff which uses \RemoveEmptyStaffContext
, you must do so
after calling \RemoveEmptyStaffContext
, ie
\layout { \context { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext \override Stem #'thickness = #4.0 } }
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[ < Changing context default settings ] | [ Up : Interpretation contexts ] | [ Aligning contexts > ] |
5.1.5 Defining new contexts
Specific contexts, like Staff
and Voice
, are made of
simple building blocks. It is possible to create new types of
contexts with different combinations of engraver plug-ins.
The next example shows how to build a different type of
Voice
context from scratch. It will be similar to
Voice
, but only prints centered slash note heads. It can be used
to indicate improvisation in jazz pieces,
These settings are defined within a \context
block inside a
\layout
block,
\layout { \context { … } }
In the following discussion, the example input shown should go in place of the … in the previous fragment.
First it is necessary to define a name for the new context:
\name ImproVoice
Since it is similar to the Voice
, we want commands that work
on (existing) Voice
s to remain working. This is achieved by
giving the new context an alias Voice
,
\alias Voice
The context will print notes and instructive texts, so we need to add the engravers which provide this functionality,
\consists Note_heads_engraver \consists Text_engraver
but we only need this on the center line,
\consists Pitch_squash_engraver squashedPosition = #0
The
Pitch_squash_engraver modifies note heads (created
by
Note_heads_engraver) and sets their vertical
position to the value of squashedPosition
, in this case 0
,
the center line.
The notes look like a slash, and have no stem,
\override NoteHead #'style = #'slash \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
All these plug-ins have to cooperate, and this is achieved with a
special plug-in, which must be marked with the keyword \type
.
This should always be Engraver_group
.
\type "Engraver_group"
Put together, we get
\context { \name ImproVoice \type "Engraver_group" \consists "Note_heads_engraver" \consists "Text_engraver" \consists Pitch_squash_engraver squashedPosition = #0 \override NoteHead #'style = #'slash \override Stem #'transparent = ##t \alias Voice }
Contexts form hierarchies. We want to hang the ImproVoice
under Staff
, just like normal Voice
s. Therefore, we
modify the Staff
definition with the \accepts
command,
\context { \Staff \accepts ImproVoice }
The opposite of \accepts
is \denies
,
which is sometimes needed when reusing existing context definitions.
Putting both into a \layout
block, like
\layout { \context { \name ImproVoice … } \context { \Staff \accepts "ImproVoice" } }
Then the output at the start of this subsection can be entered as
\relative c'' { a4 d8 bes8 \new ImproVoice { c4^"ad lib" c c4 c^"undress" c c_"while playing :)" } a1 }
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[ < Defining new contexts ] | [ Up : Interpretation contexts ] | [ Explaining the Internals Reference > ] |
5.1.6 Aligning contexts
New contexts may be aligned above or below existing contexts. This could be useful in setting up a vocal staff ( Vocal ensembles) and in ossia,
Contexts like PianoStaff
can contain other contexts
nested within them. Contexts which are acceptable for nesting
are defined by the “accepts” list of a context. Contexts
which are not in this list are placed below the outer context
in the printed score.
For example, the PianoStaff
context is defined by default
to accept Staff
and FiguredBass
contexts within
it, but not (for example) a Lyrics
context. So in the
following structure the lyrics are placed below the piano staff
rather than between the two staves:
\new PianoStaff << \new Staff { e4 d c2 } \addlyrics { Three blind mice } \new Staff { \clef "bass" { c,1 } } >>
The “accepts” list of a context can be modified to include additional nested contexts, so if we wanted the lyrics to appear between the two staves we could use:
\new PianoStaff \with { \accepts Lyrics } << \new Staff { e4 d c2 } \addlyrics { Three blind mice } \new Staff { \clef "bass" { c,1 } } >>
The opposite of \accepts
is \denies
; this removes a
context from the “accepts” list.
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[ < Aligning contexts ] | [ Up : Changing defaults ] | [ Navigating the program reference > ] |
5.2 Explaining the Internals Reference
5.2.1 Navigating the program reference | ||
5.2.2 Layout interfaces | ||
5.2.3 Determining the grob property | ||
5.2.4 Naming conventions |
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5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
Suppose we want to move the fingering indication in the fragment below:
c-2 \stemUp f
If you visit the documentation on fingering instructions (in Fingering instructions), you will notice:
See also
Internals Reference: Fingering.
Follow the link to Fingering. At the top of the page, you will see
Fingering objects are created by: Fingering_engraver and New_fingering_engraver.
By following related links inside the program reference, we can follow the flow of information within the program:
- Fingering: Fingering objects are created by: Fingering_engraver
- Fingering_engraver: Music types accepted: fingering-event
-
fingering-event:
Music event type
fingering-event
is in Music expressions named FingeringEvent
This path goes against the flow of information in the program: it starts from the output, and ends at the input event. You could also start at an input event, and read with the flow of information, eventually ending up at the output object(s).
The program reference can also be browsed like a normal document. It contains chapters on Music definitions, on Translation, and the Backend. Every chapter lists all the definitions used and all properties that may be tuned.
5.2.2 Layout interfaces
The HTML page that we found in the previous section describes the layout object called Fingering. Such an object is a symbol within the score. It has properties that store numbers (like thicknesses and directions), but also pointers to related objects. A layout object is also called a Grob, which is short for Graphical Object. For more details about Grobs, see grob-interface.
The page for Fingering
lists the definitions for the
Fingering
object. For example, the page says
padding
(dimension, in staff space):
0.5
which means that the number will be kept at a distance of at least 0.5 of the note head.
Each layout object may have several functions as a notational or typographical element. For example, the Fingering object has the following aspects
- Its size is independent of the horizontal spacing, unlike slurs or beams.
- It is a piece of text. Granted, it is usually a very short text.
- That piece of text is typeset with a font, unlike slurs or beams.
- Horizontally, the center of the symbol should be aligned to the center of the note head.
- Vertically, the symbol is placed next to the note and the staff.
- The vertical position is also coordinated with other superscript and subscript symbols.
Each of these aspects is captured in so-called interfaces, which are listed on the Fingering page at the bottom
This object supports the following interfaces: item-interface, self-alignment-interface, side-position-interface, text-interface, text-script-interface, font-interface, finger-interface, and grob-interface.
Clicking any of the links will take you to the page of the respective object interface. Each interface has a number of properties. Some of them are not user-serviceable (‘Internal properties’), but others can be modified.
We have been talking of the Fingering
object, but actually it
does not amount to much. The initialization file (see
Other sources of information)
‘scm/define-grobs.scm’ shows the soul of the ‘object’,
(Fingering . ((padding . 0.5) (avoid-slur . around) (slur-padding . 0.2) (staff-padding . 0.5) (self-alignment-X . 0) (self-alignment-Y . 0) (script-priority . 100) (stencil . ,ly:text-interface::print) (direction . ,ly:script-interface::calc-direction) (font-encoding . fetaNumber) (font-size . -5) ; don't overlap when next to heads. (meta . ((class . Item) (interfaces . (finger-interface font-interface text-script-interface text-interface side-position-interface self-alignment-interface item-interface))))))
As you can see, the Fingering
object is nothing more than a
bunch of variable settings, and the webpage in the Internals Reference
is directly generated from this definition.
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[ < Layout interfaces ] | [ Up : Explaining the Internals Reference ] | [ Naming conventions > ] |
5.2.3 Determining the grob property
Recall that we wanted to change the position of the 2 in
c-2 \stemUp f
Since the 2 is vertically positioned next to its note, we have to
meddle with the interface associated with this positioning. This is
done using side-position-interface
. The page for this interface
says
side-position-interface
Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the support). The property
direction
signifies where to put the victim object relative to the support (left or right, up or down?)
Below this description, the variable padding
is described as
padding
(dimension, in staff space)
Add this much extra space between objects that are next to each other.
By increasing the value of padding
, we can move the
fingering away from the note head. The following command inserts
3 staff spaces of white
between the note and the fingering:
\once \override Voice.Fingering #'padding = #3
Inserting this command before the Fingering object is created,
i.e., before c2
, yields the following result:
\once \override Voice.Fingering #'padding = #3 c-2 \stemUp f
In this case, the context for this tweak is Voice
. This
fact can also be deduced from the program reference, for the page for
the
Fingering_engraver plug-in says
Fingering_engraver is part of contexts: … Voice
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[ < Determining the grob property ] | [ Up : Explaining the Internals Reference ] | [ Modifying properties > ] |
5.2.4 Naming conventions
Another thing that is needed, is an overview of the various naming conventions:
scheme functions: lowercase-with-hyphens (incl. one-word names) scheme functions: ly:plus-scheme-style music events, music classes and music properties: as-scheme-functions Grob interfaces: scheme-style backend properties: scheme-style (but X and Y!) contexts (and MusicExpressions and grobs): Capitalized or CamelCase context properties: lowercaseFollowedByCamelCase engravers: Capitalized_followed_by_lowercase_and_with_underscores
Which of these are conventions and which are rules? Which are rules of the underlying language, and which are LP-specific?
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[ < Naming conventions ] | [ Up : Changing defaults ] | [ Overview of modifying properties > ] |
5.3 Modifying properties
5.3.1 Overview of modifying properties | ||
5.3.2 The \set command | ||
5.3.3 The \override command | ||
5.3.4 The \tweak command | ||
5.3.5 \set vs. \override |
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[ < Modifying properties ] | [ Up : Modifying properties ] | [ The set command > ] |
5.3.1 Overview of modifying properties
Each context is responsible for creating certain types of graphical objects. The settings used for printing these objects are also stored by context. By changing these settings, the appearance of objects can be altered.
The syntax for this is
\override context.name #'property = #value
Here name is the name of a graphical object, like
Stem
or NoteHead
, and property is an internal
variable of the formatting system (‘grob property’ or ‘layout
property’). The latter is a symbol, so it must be quoted. The
subsection Modifying properties, explains what to fill in
for name, property, and value. Here we only
discuss the functionality of this command.
The command
\override Staff.Stem #'thickness = #4.0
makes stems thicker (the default is 1.3, with staff line thickness as a
unit). Since the command specifies Staff
as context, it only
applies to the current staff. Other staves will keep their normal
appearance. Here we see the command in action:
c4 \override Staff.Stem #'thickness = #4.0 c4 c4 c4
The \override
command changes the definition of the Stem
within the current Staff
. After the command is interpreted
all stems are thickened.
Analogous to \set
, the context argument may be left out,
causing the default context Voice
to be used. Adding
\once
applies the change during one timestep only.
c4 \once \override Stem #'thickness = #4.0 c4 c4
The \override
must be done before the object is
started. Therefore, when altering Spanner objects such as slurs
or beams, the \override
command must be executed at the moment
when the object is created. In this example,
\override Slur #'thickness = #3.0 c8[( c \override Beam #'thickness = #0.6 c8 c])
the slur is fatter but the beam is not. This is because the command for
Beam
comes after the Beam is started, so it has no effect.
Analogous to \unset
, the \revert
command for a context
undoes an \override
command; like with \unset
, it only
affects settings that were made in the same context. In other words, the
\revert
in the next example does not do anything.
\override Voice.Stem #'thickness = #4.0 \revert Staff.Stem #'thickness
Some tweakable options are called ‘subproperties’ and reside inside properties. To tweak those, use commands of the form
\override context.name #'property #'subproperty = #value
such as
\override Stem #'(details beamed-lengths) = #'(4 4 3)
See also
Internals: OverrideProperty, RevertProperty, PropertySet, Backend, and All layout objects.
Known issues and warnings
The back-end is not very strict in type-checking object properties. Cyclic references in Scheme values for properties can cause hangs or crashes, or both.
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[ < Overview of modifying properties ] | [ Up : Modifying properties ] | [ The override command > ] |
5.3.2 The \set
command
Each context can have different properties, variables contained
in that context. They can be changed during the interpretation step.
This is achieved by inserting the \set
command in the music,
\set context.prop = #value
For example,
R1*2 \set Score.skipBars = ##t R1*2
This command skips measures that have no notes. The result is that
multi-rests are condensed. The value assigned is a Scheme object. In
this case, it is #t
, the boolean True value.
If the context argument is left out, then the current bottom-most
context (typically ChordNames
, Voice
, or
Lyrics
) is used. In this example,
c8 c c c \set autoBeaming = ##f c8 c c c
the context argument to \set
is left out, so automatic
beaming is switched off in the current
Voice. Note that
the bottom-most context does not always contain the property that you
wish to change – for example, attempting to set the skipBars
property (of the bottom-most context, in this case Voice
) will
have no effect.
R1*2 \set skipBars = ##t R1*2
Contexts are hierarchical, so if a bigger context was specified, for
example Staff
, then the change would also apply to all
Voice
s in the current stave. The change is applied
‘on-the-fly’, during the music, so that the setting only affects the
second group of eighth notes.
There is also an \unset
command,
\unset context.prop
which removes the definition of prop. This command removes the definition only if it is set in context, so
\set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
introduces a property setting at Staff
level. The setting also
applies to the current Voice
. However,
\unset Voice.autoBeaming
does not have any effect. To cancel this setting, the \unset
must be specified on the same level as the original \set
. In
other words, undoing the effect of Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
requires
\unset Staff.autoBeaming
Like \set
, the context argument does not have to be
specified for a bottom context, so the two statements
\set Voice.autoBeaming = ##t \set autoBeaming = ##t
are equivalent.
Settings that should only apply to a single time-step can be entered
with \once
, for example in
c4 \once \set fontSize = #4.7 c4 c4
the property fontSize
is unset automatically after the second
note.
A full description of all available context properties is in the program reference, see Tunable context properties.
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[ < The set command ] | [ Up : Modifying properties ] | [ The tweak command > ] |
5.3.3 The \override
command
Commands which change output generally look like
\override Voice.Stem #'thickness = #3.0
To construct this tweak we must determine these bits of information:
- the context: here
Voice
. - the layout object: here
Stem
. - the layout property: here
thickness
. - a sensible value: here
3.0
.
Some tweakable options are called ‘subproperties’ and reside inside properties. To tweak those, use commands in the form
\override Stem #'(details beamed-lengths) = #'(4 4 3)
For many properties, regardless of the data type of the property, setting the
property to false ( ##f
) will result in turning it off, causing
LilyPond to ignore that property entirely. This is particularly useful for
turning off grob properties which may otherwise be causing problems.
We demonstrate how to glean this information from the notation manual and the program reference.
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[ < The override command ] | [ Up : Modifying properties ] | [ set versus override > ] |
5.3.4 The \tweak
command
In some cases, it is possible to take a short-cut for tuning
graphical objects. For objects that are created directly from
an item in the input file, you can use the \tweak
command.
For example:
< c \tweak #'color #red d g \tweak #'duration-log #1 a > 4 -\tweak #'padding #8 -^
But the main use of the \tweak
command is to modify just
one of a number of notation elements which start at the same musical
moment, like the notes of a chord, or tuplet brackets which start
at the same time.
For an introduction to the syntax and uses of the tweak command see Tweaking methods.
The \tweak
command sets a property in the following object
directly, without requiring the grob name or context to be
specified. For this to work, it is necessary for the \tweak
command to remain immediately adjacent to the object to which it is
to apply after the input file has been converted to a music stream.
This is often not the case, as many additional elements are inserted
into the music stream implicitly. For example, when a note which is
not part of a chord is processed, Lilypond implicitly inserts a
ChordEvent
event before the note, so separating the tweak
from the note. However, if chord symbols are placed round the
tweak and the note, the \tweak
command comes after the
ChordEvent
in the music stream, so remaining adjacent to the
note, and able to modify it.
So, this works:
<\tweak #'color #red c>4
but this does not:
\tweak #'color #red c4
When several similar items are placed at the same musical moment,
the \override
command cannot be used to modify just one of
them – this is where the \tweak
command must be used.
Items which may appear more than once at the same musical moment
include the following:
- note heads of notes inside a chord
- articulation signs on a single note
- ties between notes in a chord
- tuplet brackets starting at the same time
and \tweak
may be used to modify any single occurrence of
these items.
Notably the \tweak
command cannot be used to modify stems,
beams or accidentals, since these are generated later by note heads,
rather than by music elements in the input stream. Nor can a
\tweak
command be used to modify clefs or time signatures,
since these become separated from any preceding \tweak
command in the input stream by the automatic insertion of extra
elements required to specify the context.
But the \tweak
command can be used as an alternative to
the \override
command to modify those notational elements
that do not cause any additional implicit elements to be added
before them in the music stream. For example, slurs may be
modified in this way:
c-\tweak #'thickness #5 ( d e f)
Also several \tweak
commands may be placed before a
notational element – all affect it:
c -\tweak #'style #'dashed-line -\tweak #'dash-fraction #0.2 -\tweak #'thickness #3 -\tweak #'color #red \glissando f'
The music stream which is generated from a section of an input file,
including any automatically inserted elements, may be examined,
see Displaying music expressions. This may be helpful in
determining what may be modified by a \tweak
command.
See also
Learning Manual: Tweaking methods.
Notation Reference: Displaying music expressions.
Known issues and warnings
The \tweak
command cannot be used inside a variable.
The \tweak
commands cannot be used in \lyricmode
.
The \tweak
command cannot be used to modify the control
points of just one of several ties in a chord, other than the first
one encountered in the input file.
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[ < The tweak command ] | [ Up : Modifying properties ] | [ Useful concepts and properties > ] |
5.3.5 \set
vs. \override
We have seen two methods of changing properties: \set
and
\override
. There are actually two different kinds of
properties.
Contexts can have properties, which are usually named in
studlyCaps
. They mostly control the translation from
music to notation, eg. localKeySignature
(for determining
whether to print accidentals), measurePosition
(for
determining when to print a bar line). Context properties can
change value over time while interpreting a piece of music;
measurePosition
is an obvious example of
this. Context properties are modified with \set
.
There is a special type of context property: the element
description. These properties are named in StudlyCaps
(starting with capital letters). They contain the
‘default settings’ for said graphical object as an
association list. See ‘scm/define-grobs.scm’
to see what kind of settings there are. Element descriptions
may be modified with \override
.
\override
is actually a shorthand;
\override context.name #'property = #value
is more or less equivalent to
\set context.name #'property = #(cons (cons 'property value) <previous value of context)
The value of context
(the alist) is used to initialize
the properties of individual grobs. Grobs also have
properties, named in Scheme style, with
dashed-words
. The values of grob properties change
during the formatting process: formatting basically amounts
to computing properties using callback functions.
fontSize
is a special property: it is equivalent to
entering \override ... #'font-size
for all pertinent
objects. Since this is a common change, the special
property (modified with \set
) was created.
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[ < set versus override ] | [ Up : Changing defaults ] | [ Input modes > ] |
5.4 Useful concepts and properties
5.4.1 Input modes | ||
5.4.2 Direction and placement | ||
5.4.3 Distances and measurements | ||
5.4.4 Staff symbol properties | ||
5.4.5 Spanners | ||
5.4.6 Visibility of objects | ||
5.4.7 Line styles | ||
5.4.8 Rotating objects |
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5.4.1 Input modes
The way in which the notation contained within an input file is interpreted is determined by the current input mode.
Chord mode
This is activated with the \chordmode
command, and causes
input to be interpreted with the syntax of chord notation, see
Chord notation. Chords are rendered as notes on a staff.
Chord mode is also activated with the \chords
command.
This also creates a new ChordNames
context and
causes the following input to be interpreted with the syntax of
chord notation and rendered as chord names in the ChordNames
context, see Printing chord names.
Drum mode
This is activated with the \drummode
command, and causes
input to be interpreted with the syntax of drum notation, see
Basic percussion notation.
Drum mode is also activated with the \drums
command.
This also creates a new DrumStaff
context and causes the
following input to be interpreted with the syntax of drum notation
and rendered as drum symbols on a drum staff, see Basic percussion notation.
Figure mode
This is activated with the \figuremode
command, and causes
input to be interpreted with the syntax of figured bass, see
Entering figured bass.
Figure mode is also activated with the \figures
command.
This also creates a new FiguredBass
context and causes the
following input to be interpreted with the figured bass syntax
and rendered as figured bass symbols in the FiguredBass
context, see Introduction to figured bass.
Fret and tab modes
There are no special input modes for entering fret and tab symbols.
To create tab diagrams, enter notes or chords in note mode and
render them in a TabStaff
context, see
Default tablatures.
To create fret diagrams above a staff, you have two choices.
You can either use the FretBoards
context (see
Automatic fret diagrams or you can enter them as a markup
above the notes using the \fret-diagram
command (see
Fret diagram markups).
Lyrics mode
This is activated with the \lyricmode
command, and causes
input to be interpreted as lyric syllables with optional durations
and associated lyric modifiers, see Vocal music.
Lyric mode is also activated with the \addlyrics
command.
This also creates a new Lyrics
context and an implicit
\lyricsto
command which associates the following lyrics
with the preceding music.
Markup mode
This is activated with the \markup
command, and causes
input to be interpreted with the syntax of markup, see
Text markup commands.
Note mode
This is the default mode or it may be activated with the
\notemode
command. Input is interpreted as pitches,
durations, markup, etc and typeset as musical notation on a staff.
It is not normally necessary to specify note mode explicitly, but it may be useful to do so in certain situations, for example if you are in lyric mode, chord mode or any other mode and want to insert something that only can be done with note mode syntax.
For example, to indicate dynamic markings for the verses of a choral pieces it is necessary to enter note mode to interpret the markings:
{ c4 c4 c4 c4 } \addlyrics { \notemode{\set stanza = \markup{ \dynamic f 1. } } To be sung loudly } \addlyrics { \notemode{\set stanza = \markup{ \dynamic p 2. } } To be sung quietly }
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[ < Input modes ] | [ Up : Useful concepts and properties ] | [ Distances and measurements > ] |
5.4.2 Direction and placement
In typesetting music the direction and placement of many items is a matter of choice. For example, the stems of notes can be directed up or down; lyrics, dynamics, and other expressive marks may be placed above or below the staff; text may be aligned left, right or center; etc. Most of these choices may be left to be determined automatically by LilyPond, but in some cases it may be desirable to force a particular direction or placement.
Default actions
By default some directions are always up or always down (e.g. dynamics or fermata), while other things can alternate between up or down based on the stem direction (like slurs or accents).
Context layout order
Contexts are normally positioned in a system from top to bottom in the order in which they are encountered. Note, however, that a context will be created implicitly if a command is encountered when there is no suitable context available to contain it. When contexts are nested, the outer context will exclude inner contexts which are not included in its “accepts” list; excluded contexts will be repositioned below the outer context.
The default order in which contexts are laid out and the “accepts” list can be changed, see Aligning contexts.
Articulation direction indicators
When adding articulations to notes the direction indicator,
^
(meaning “up”), _
(meaning “down”) or
-
(meaning “use default direction”), can usually be
omitted, in which case -
is assumed. But a direction
indicator is always required before
-
\tweak
commands -
\markup
commands -
\tag
commands - string markups, e.g. -"string"
- fingering instructions, e.g.
-1
- articulation shortcuts, e.g.
-.
,->
,--
The direction property
The position or direction of many layout objects is controlled
by the direction
property.
The value of the direction
property may be
set to 1
, meaning “up” or “above”, or to -1
,
meaning “down” or “below”. The symbols UP
and
DOWN
may be used instead of 1
and -1
respectively. The default direction may be specified by setting
direction
to 0
or CENTER
. Alternatively,
in many cases predefined commands
exist to specify the direction. These are all of the form
\xxxUp
, xxxDown
, xxxNeutral
where xxxNeutral
means “use the default direction”.
See
Within-staff objects.
In a few cases, arpeggio being the only common example, the value
of the direction
property specifies whether the object
is to be placed to the right or left of the parent object. In
this case -1
or LEFT
means “to the left” and
1
or RIGHT
means “to the right”. 0
or CENTER
means “use the default” direction, as before.
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Direction and placement ] | [ Up : Useful concepts and properties ] | [ Staff symbol properties > ] |
5.4.3 Distances and measurements
Distances in LilyPond are of two types: absolute and scaled.
Absolute distances are used for specifying margins, indents, and
other page layout details, and are by default specified in
millimeters. Distances may be specified in other units by
following the quantity by \mm
, \cm
,
\in
(inches), or \pt
(points, 1/72.27
of an inch). Page layout distances can also be specified in
scalable units (see the following paragraph) by appending
\staff-space
to the quantity.
Page layout is described in detail in Page formatting.
Scaled distances are always specified in units of the staff-space
or, rarely, the half staff-space. The staff-space is the distance
between two adjacent staff lines. The default value can be changed
globally by setting the global staff size, or it can be overridden
locally by changing the staff-space
property of
StaffSymbol
. Scaled distances automatically scale with any
change to the either the global staff size or the
staff-space
property of StaffSymbol
, but fonts scale
automatically only with changes to the global staff size.
The global staff size thus enables the overall size of a rendered
score to be easily varied. For the methods of setting the global
staff size see Setting the staff size.
If just a section of a score needs to be rendered to a different
scale, for example an ossia section or a footnote, the global staff
size cannot simply be changed as this would affect the entire score.
In such cases the change in size is made by overriding both the
staff-space
property of StaffSymbol
and the size of
the fonts. A Scheme function, magstep
, is available to
convert from a font size change to the equivalent change in
staff-space
. For an explanation and an example of its use,
see
Length and thickness of objects.
See also
Learning Manual: Length and thickness of objects.
Notation Reference: Page formatting, Setting the staff size.
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Distances and measurements ] | [ Up : Useful concepts and properties ] | [ Spanners > ] |
5.4.4 Staff symbol properties
The vertical position of staff lines and the number of staff lines can be defined at the same time. As the following example shows, note positions are not influenced by the staff line positions.
Note: The |
\new Staff \with { \override StaffSymbol #'line-positions = #'(7 3 0 -4 -6 -7) } { a4 e' f b | d1 }
The width of a staff can be modified. The units are staff spaces. The spacing of objects inside the staff is not affected by this setting.
\new Staff \with { \override StaffSymbol #'width = #23 } { a4 e' f b | d1 }
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[ < Staff symbol properties ] | [ Up : Useful concepts and properties ] | [ > ] |
5.4.5 Spanners
Many objects of musical notation extend over several notes or even several bars. Examples are slurs, beams, tuplet brackets, volta repeat brackets, crescendi, trills, and glissandi. Such objects are collectively called “spanners”, and have special properties to control their appearance and behaviour. Some of these properties are common to all spanners; others are restricted to a sub-set of the spanners.
All spanners support the spanner-interface
. A few, esentially
those that draw a straight line between the two objects, support in
addition the line-spanner-interface
.
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Spanners ] | [ Up : Spanners ] | [ > ] |
Using the spanner-interface
This interface provides two properties that apply to several spanners.
The minimum-length
property
The minimum length of the spanner is specified by the
minimum-length
property. Increasing this usually has the
necessary effect of increasing the spacing of the notes between the
two end points. However, this override has no effect on
many spanners, as their length is determined by other considerations.
A few examples where it is effective are shown below.
a~a a % increase the length of the tie -\tweak #'minimum-length #5 ~a
a1 \compressFullBarRests R1*23 % increase the length of the rest bar \once \override MultiMeasureRest #'minimum-length = #20 R1*23 a1
a \< a a a \! % increase the length of the hairpin \override Hairpin #'minimum-length = #20 a \< a a a \!
This override can also be used to increase the length of slurs and phrasing slurs:
a( a) a -\tweak #'minimum-length #5 ( a) a\( a\) a -\tweak #'minimum-length #5 \( a\)
For some layout objects, the minimum-length
property becomes
effective only if the set-spacing-rods
procedure is called
explicitly. To do this, the springs-and-rods
property should
be set to ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods
. For example,
the minimum length of a glissando has no effect unless the
springs-and-rods
property is set:
% default e \glissando c' % not effective alone \once \override Glissando #'minimum-length = #20 e, \glissando c' % effective only when both overrides are present \once \override Glissando #'minimum-length = #20 \once \override Glissando #'springs-and-rods = #ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods e, \glissando c'
The same is true of the Beam
object:
% not effective alone \once \override Beam #'minimum-length = #20 e8 e e e % effective only when both overrides are present \once \override Beam #'minimum-length = #20 \once \override Beam #'springs-and-rods = #ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods e8 e e e
The to-barline
property
The second useful property of the spanner-interface
is
to-barline
. By default this is true, causing hairpins and
other spanners which are terminated on the first note of a measure to
end instead on the immediately preceding bar line. If set to false,
the spanner will extend beyond the bar line and end on the note
itself:
a \< a a a a \! a a a \break \override Hairpin #'to-barline = ##f a \< a a a a \! a a a
This property is not effective for all spanners. For example,
seting it to #t
has no effect on slurs or phrasing slurs
or on other spanners for which terminating on the bar line would
not be meaningful.
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < ] | [ Up : Spanners ] | [ Visibility of objects > ] |
Using the line-spanner-interface
Objects which support the line-spanner-interface
include
-
DynamicTextSpanner
-
Glissando
-
TextSpanner
-
TrillSpanner
-
VoiceFollower
The routine responsible for drawing the stencils for these spanners is
ly:line-interface::print
. This routine determines the
exact location of the two end points and draws a line
between them, in the style requested. The locations of the two
end points of the spanner are computed on-the-fly, but it is
possible to override their Y-coordinates. The
properties which need to be specified are nested
two levels down within the property hierarchy, but the syntax of
the \override
command is quite simple:
e2 \glissando b \once \override Glissando #'(bound-details left Y) = #3 \once \override Glissando #'(bound-details right Y) = #-2 e2 \glissando b
The units for the Y
property are staff-space
s,
with the center line of the staff being the zero point.
For the glissando, this is the value for Y
at the
X-coordinate corresponding to the center point of each note head,
if the line is imagined to be extended to there.
If Y
is not set, the value is computed from the vertical
position of the corresponding attachment point of the spanner.
In case of a line break, the values for the end points are
specified by the left-broken
and right-broken
sub-lists of bound-details
. For example:
\override Glissando #'breakable = ##t \override Glissando #'(bound-details right-broken Y) = #-3 c1 \glissando \break f1
A number of further properties of the left
and
right
sub-lists of the bound-details
property
may be modified in the same way as Y
:
-
Y
This sets the Y-coordinate of the end point, in
staff-space
s offset from the staff center line. By default, it is the center of the bound object, so a glissando points to the vertical center of the note head.For horizontal spanners, such as text spanners and trill spanners, it is hardcoded to 0.
-
attach-dir
This determines where the line starts and ends in the X-direction, relative to the bound object. So, a value of
-1
(orLEFT
) makes the line start/end at the left side of the note head it is attached to.-
X
This is the absolute X-coordinate of the end point. It is usually computed on the fly, and overriding it has little useful effect.
-
stencil
Line spanners may have symbols at the beginning or end, which is contained in this sub-property. This is for internal use; it is recommended that
text
be used instead.-
text
This is a markup that is evaluated to yield the stencil. It is used to put cresc., tr and other text on horizontal spanners.
\override TextSpanner #'(bound-details left text) = \markup { \small \bold Slower } c2\startTextSpan b c a\stopTextSpan
-
stencil-align-dir-y
-
stencil-offset
Without setting one of these, the stencil is simply put at the end-point, centered on the line, as defined by the
X
andY
sub-properties. Setting eitherstencil-align-dir-y
orstencil-offset
will move the symbol at the edge vertically relative to the end point of the line:\override TextSpanner #'(bound-details left stencil-align-dir-y) = #-2 \override TextSpanner #'(bound-details right stencil-align-dir-y) = #UP \override TextSpanner #'(bound-details left text) = #"ggg" \override TextSpanner #'(bound-details right text) = #"hhh" c4^\startTextSpan c c c \stopTextSpan
Note that negative values move the text up, contrary to the effect that might be expected, as a value of
-1
orDOWN
means align the bottom edge of the text with the spanner line. A value of1
orUP
aligns the top edge of the text with the spanner line.-
arrow
Setting this sub-property to
#t
produces an arrowhead at the end of the line.-
padding
This sub-property controls the space between the specified end point of the line and the actual end. Without padding, a glissando would start and end in the center of each note head.
The music function \endSpanners
terminates the spanner
which starts on the immediately following note prematurely. It
is terminated after exactly one note, or at the following bar line
if to-barline
is true and a bar line occurs before the next
note.
\endSpanners c2 \startTextSpan c2 c2 \endSpanners c2 \< c2 c2
When using \endSpanners
it is not necessary to close
\startTextSpan with \stopTextSpan, nor is it necessary to close
hairpins with \!
.
See also
Internals Reference: TextSpanner, Glissando, VoiceFollower, TrillSpanner, line-spanner-interface.
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < ] | [ Up : Useful concepts and properties ] | [ Removing the stencil > ] |
5.4.6 Visibility of objects
There are four main ways in which the visibility of layout objects
can be controlled: their stencil can be removed, they can be made
transparent, they can be colored white, or their
break-visibility
property can be overridden. The first
three apply to all layout objects; the last to just a few – the
breakable objects. The Learning Manual introduces these
four techniques, see
Visibility and color of objects.
There are also a few other techniques which are specific to certain layout objects. These are covered under Special considerations.
Removing the stencil | ||
Making objects transparent | ||
Painting objects white | ||
Using break-visibility | ||
Special considerations |
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Visibility of objects ] | [ Up : Visibility of objects ] | [ Making objects transparent > ] |
Removing the stencil
Every layout object has a stencil property. By default this is set
to the specific function which draws that object. If this property
is overridden to #f
no function will be called and the object
will not be drawn. The default action can be recovered with
\revert
.
a1 a \override Score.BarLine #'stencil = ##f a a \revert Score.BarLine #'stencil a a a
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Removing the stencil ] | [ Up : Visibility of objects ] | [ Painting objects white > ] |
Making objects transparent
Every layout object has a transparent property which by default is
set to #f
. If set to #t
the object still occupies
space but is made invisible.
a4 a \once \override NoteHead #'transparent = ##t a a
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Making objects transparent ] | [ Up : Visibility of objects ] | [ Using break-visibility > ] |
Painting objects white
Every layout object has a color property which by default is set
to black
. If this is overridden to white
the object
will be indistinguishable from the white background. However,
if the object crosses other objects the color of the crossing
points will be determined by the order in which they are drawn,
and this may leave a ghostly image of the white object, as shown
here:
\override Staff.Clef #'color = #white a1
This may be avoided by changing the order of printing the objects.
All layout objects have a layer
property which should be set
to an integer. Objects with the lowest value of layer
are
drawn first, then objects with progressively higher values are drawn,
so objects with higher values overwrite objects with lower values.
By default most objects are assigned a layer
value of
1
, although a few objects, including StaffSymbol
and
BarLine
, are assigned a value of 0
. The order of
printing objects with the same value of layer
is indeterminate.
In the example above the white clef, with a default layer
value of 1
, is drawn after the staff lines (default
layer
value 0
), so overwriting them. To change this,
the Clef
object must be given in a lower value of
layer
, say -1
, so that it is drawn earlier:
\override Staff.Clef #'color = #white \override Staff.Clef #'layer = #-1 a1
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Painting objects white ] | [ Up : Visibility of objects ] | [ Special considerations > ] |
Using break-visibility
Most layout objects are printed only once, but some like
bar lines, clefs, time signatures and key signatures, may need
to be printed twice when a line break occurs – once at the end
of the line and again at the start of the next line. Such
objects are called breakable, and have a property, the
break-visibility
property to control their visibility
at the three positions in which they may appear – at the
start of a line, within a line if they are changed, and at the
end of a line if a change takes place there.
For example, the time signature by default will be printed at the start of the first line, but nowhere else unless it changes, when it will be printed at the point at which the change occurs. If this change occurs at the end of a line the new time signature will be printed at the start of the next line and a cautionary time signature will be printed at the end of the previous line as well.
This behaviour is controlled by the break-visibility
property, which is explained in
Visibility and color of objects. This property takes
a vector of three booleans which, in order, determine whether the
object is printed at the end of, within the body of, or at the
beginning of a line. Or to be more precise, before a line break,
where there is no line break, or after a line break.
Alternatively, these eight combinations may be specified by pre-defined functions, defined in ‘scm/output-lib.scm’, where the last three columns indicate whether the layout objects will be visible in the positions shown at the head of the columns:
Function | Vector | Before | At no | After |
---|---|---|---|---|
form | form | break | break | break |
| | yes | yes | yes |
| | no | no | yes |
| | no | yes | no |
| | yes | no | no |
| | yes | yes | no |
| | yes | no | yes |
| | no | yes | yes |
| | no | no | no |
The default settings of break-visibility
depend on the
layout object. The following table shows all the layout objects
of interest which are affected by break-visibility
and the
default setting of this property:
Layout object | Usual context | Default setting |
---|---|---|
| | calculated |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
The example below shows the use of the vector form to control the visibility of barlines:
f4 g a b f4 g a b % Remove bar line at the end of the current line \once \override Score.BarLine #'break-visibility = #'#(#f #t #t) \break f4 g a b f4 g a b
Although all three components of the vector used to override
break-visibility
must be present, not all of them are
effective with every layout object, and some combinations may
even give errors. The following limitations apply:
- Bar lines cannot be printed at start of line.
- A bar number cannot be printed at the start of the first line unless it is set to be different from 1.
- Clef – see below
- Double percent repeats are either all printed or all suppressed. Use begin-of line-invisible to print and all-invisible to suppress.
- Key signature – see below
- OctavateEight – see below
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Using break-visibility ] | [ Up : Visibility of objects ] | [ Line styles > ] |
Special considerations
Visibility following explicit changes
The break-visibility
property controls the visibility of
key signatures and changes of clef only at the start of lines,
i.e. after a break. It has no effect on the visibility of the
key signature or clef following an explicit key change or an
explicit clef change within or at the end of a line. In the
following example the key signature following the explicit change
to B-flat major is still visible, even though all-invisible
is set.
\key g \major f4 g a b % Try to remove all key signatures \override Staff.KeySignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible \key bes \major f4 g a b \break f4 g a b f4 g a b
The visibility of such explicit key signature and clef changes is
controlled by the explicitKeySignatureVisibility
and
explicitClefVisibility
properties. These are the equivalent
of the break-visibility
property and both take a vector of
three booleans or the predefined functions listed above, exactly like
break-visibility
. Both are properties of the Staff context,
not the layout objects themselves, and so they are set using the
\set
command. Both are set by default to all-visible
.
These properties control only the visibility of key signatures and
clefs resulting from explicit changes and do not affect key
signatures and clefs at the beginning of lines;
break-visibility
must still be overridden in the appropriate
object to remove these.
\key g \major f4 g a b \set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible \override Staff.KeySignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible \key bes \major f4 g a b \break f4 g a b f4 g a b
Visibility of cautionary accidentals
To remove the cautionary accidentals printed at an explicit key
change, set the Staff context property printKeyCancellation
to #f
:
\key g \major f4 g a b \set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible \set Staff.printKeyCancellation = ##f \override Staff.KeySignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible \key bes \major f4 g a b \break f4 g a b f4 g a b
With these overrides only the accidentals before the notes remain to indicate the change of key.
Automatic bars
As a special case, the printing of bar lines can also be turned off
by setting the automaticBars
property in the Score context.
If set to #f
, bar lines will not be printed automatically;
they must be explicitly created with a \bar
command. Unlike
the \cadenzaOn
predefined command, measures are still counted.
Bar generation will resume according to that count if this property
is later set to #t
. When set to #f
, line breaks can
occur only at explicit \bar
commands.
Octavated clefs
The small octavation symbol on octavated clefs is produced by the
OctavateEight
layout object. Its visibility is controlled
independently from that of the Clef
object, so it is
necessary to apply any required break-visibility
overrides
to both the Clef
and the OctavateEight
layout objects
to fully suppress such clef symbols at the start of each line.
For explicit clef changes, the explicitClefVisibility
property controls both the clef symbol and any octavation symbol
associated with it.
See also
Learning Manual: Visibility and color of objects
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Special considerations ] | [ Up : Useful concepts and properties ] | [ Rotating objects > ] |
5.4.7 Line styles
Some performance indications, e.g., rallentando and accelerando and trills are written as text and are extended over many measures with lines, sometimes dotted or wavy.
These all use the same routines as the glissando for drawing the
texts and the lines, and tuning their behavior is therefore also
done in the same way. It is done with a spanner, and the routine
responsible for drawing the spanners is
ly:line-interface::print
. This routine determines the
exact location of the two span points and draws a line
between them, in the style requested.
Here is an example showing the different line styles available, and how to tune them.
d2 \glissando d'2 \once \override Glissando #'style = #'dashed-line d,2 \glissando d'2 \override Glissando #'style = #'dotted-line d,2 \glissando d'2 \override Glissando #'style = #'zigzag d,2 \glissando d'2 \override Glissando #'style = #'trill d,2 \glissando d'2
The locations of the end-points of the spanner are computed on-the-fly for every graphic object, but it is possible to override these:
e2 \glissando f \once \override Glissando #'(bound-details right Y) = #-2 e2 \glissando f
The value for Y
is set to -2
for the right end
point. The left side may be similarly adjusted by specifying
left
instead of right
.
If Y
is not set, the value is computed from the vertical
position of the left and right attachment points of the spanner.
Other adjustments of spanners are possible, for details, see Spanners.
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Line styles ] | [ Up : Useful concepts and properties ] | [ Rotating layout objects > ] |
5.4.8 Rotating objects
Both layout objects and elements of markup text can be rotated by any angle about any point, but the method of doing so differs.
Rotating layout objects | ||
Rotating markup |
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Rotating objects ] | [ Up : Rotating objects ] | [ Rotating markup > ] |
Rotating layout objects
All layout objects which support the grob-interface
can be
rotated by setting their rotation
property. This takes a
list of three items: the angle of rotation counter-clockwise,
and the x and y coordinates of the point relative to the object’s
reference point about which the rotation is to be performed. The
angle of rotation is specified in degrees and the coordinates in
staff-spaces.
The angle of rotation and the coordinates of the rotation point must be determined by trial and error.
There are only a few situations where the rotation of layout objects is useful; the following example shows one situation where they may be:
g4\< e' d' f\! \override Hairpin #'rotation = #'(20 -1 0) g,,4\< e' d' f\!
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Rotating layout objects ] | [ Up : Rotating objects ] | [ Advanced tweaks > ] |
Rotating markup
All markup text can be rotated to lie at any angle by prefixing it
with the \rotate
command. The command takes two arguments:
the angle of rotation in degrees counter-clockwise and the text to
be rotated. The extents of the text are not rotated: they take
their values from the extremes of the x and y coordinates of the
rotated text. In the following example the
outside-staff-priority
property for text is set to #f
to disable the automatic collision avoidance, which would push some
of the text too high.
\override TextScript #'outside-staff-priority = ##f g4^\markup { \rotate #30 "a G" } b^\markup { \rotate #30 "a B" } des^\markup { \rotate #30 "a D-Flat" } fis^\markup { \rotate #30 "an F-Sharp" }
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Rotating markup ] | [ Up : Changing defaults ] | [ Aligning objects > ] |
5.5 Advanced tweaks
This section discusses various approaches to fine tuning the appearance of the printed score.
5.5.1 Aligning objects | ||
5.5.2 Vertical grouping of grobs | ||
5.5.3 Modifying stencils | ||
5.5.4 Modifying shapes |
See also
Learning Manual: Tweaking output, Other sources of information.
Notation Reference: Explaining the Internals Reference, Modifying properties, Interfaces for programmers.
Installed Files: ‘scm/define-grobs.scm’.
Snippets: Tweaks and overrides.
Internals Reference: All layout objects.
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Advanced tweaks ] | [ Up : Advanced tweaks ] | [ Setting X-offset and Y-offset directly > ] |
5.5.1 Aligning objects
Graphical objects which support the self-alignment-interface
and/or
the side-position-interface
can be
aligned to a previously placed object in a variety of ways. For a list of these objects, see
self-alignment-interface and
side-position-interface.
All graphical objects have a reference point, a horizontal extent and a vertical extent. The horizontal extent is a pair of numbers giving the displacements from the reference point of the left and right edges, displacements to the left being negative. The vertical extent is a pair of numbers giving the displacement from the reference point to the bottom and top edges, displacements down being negative.
An object’s position on a staff is given by the values of the
X-offset
and Y-offset
properties. The value of
X-offset
gives the displacement from the x coordinate of
the reference point of the parent object, and the value of
Y-offset
gives the displacement from the center line of the
staff. The values of X-offset
and
Y-offset
may be set directly or may be set to be calculated
by procedures in order to achieve alignment with the parent object
in several ways.
Note: Many objects have special positioning considerations which
cause any setting of |
For example, an accidental can be repositioned
vertically by setting Y-offset
but any changes to
X-offset
have no effect.
Rehearsal marks may be aligned with
breakable objects such as bar lines, clef symbols, time signature
symbols and key signatures. There are special properties to be
found in the break-aligned-interface
for positioning rehearsal
marks on such objects.
Setting X-offset and Y-offset directly | ||
Using the side-position-interface | ||
Using the self-alignment-interface | ||
Using the break-alignable-interface |
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Aligning objects ] | [ Up : Aligning objects ] | [ Using the side-position-interface > ] |
Setting X-offset
and Y-offset
directly
Numerical values may be given to the X-offset
and Y-offset
properties of many objects. The following example shows three
notes with the default fingering position and the positions with X-offset
and Y-offset
modified.
a-3 a -\tweak #'X-offset #0 -\tweak #'Y-offset #0 -3 a -\tweak #'X-offset #-1 -\tweak #'Y-offset #1 -3
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[ < Setting X-offset and Y-offset directly ] | [ Up : Aligning objects ] | [ Using the self-alignment-interface > ] |
Using the side-position-interface
An object which supports the side-position-interface
can be
placed next to its parent object so that
the specified edges of the two objects touch. The object may be
placed above, below, to the right or to the left of the parent.
The parent cannot be specified; it is determined by the order of
elements in the input stream. Most objects have the associated
note head as their parent.
The values of the side-axis
and direction
properties
determine where the object is to be placed, as follows:
| | |
---|---|---|
property | property | Placement |
| | left |
| | right |
| | below |
| | above |
When side-axis
is 0
, X-offset
should be set to
the procedure ly:side-position-interface::x-aligned-side
.
This procedure will return the correct value of X-offset
to
place the object to the left or right side of the parent according
to value of direction
.
When side-axis
is 1
, Y-offset
should be set to
the procedure ly:side-position-interface::y-aligned-side
.
This procedure will return the correct value of Y-offset
to
place the object to the top or bottom of the parent according
to value of direction
.
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[ < Using the side-position-interface ] | [ Up : Aligning objects ] | [ Using the break-alignable-interface > ] |
Using the self-alignment-interface
Self-aligning objects horizontally
The horizontal alignment of an object which supports the
self-alignment-interface
is controlled by the value of
the self-alignment-X
property, provided the object’s
X-offset
property is set to
ly:self-alignment-interface::x-aligned-on-self
.
self-alignment-X
may be given any
real value, in units of half the total X extent of the
object. Negative values move the object to the right, positive
to the left. A value of 0
centers the object on the
reference point of its parent, a value of -1
aligns the
left edge of the object on the reference point of its parent,
and a value of 1
aligns the right edge of the object on the
reference point of its parent. The symbols LEFT
,
CENTER
and RIGHT
may be used instead of the values
-1, 0, 1
respectively.
Normally the \override
command would be used to modify the
value of self-alignment-X
, but the \tweak
command
can be used to separately align several annotations on a single
note:
a' -\tweak #'self-alignment-X #-1 ^"left-aligned" -\tweak #'self-alignment-X #0 ^"center-aligned" -\tweak #'self-alignment-X #RIGHT ^"right-aligned" -\tweak #'self-alignment-X #-2.5 ^"aligned further to the right"
Self-aligning objects vertically
Objects may be aligned vertically in an analogous way to aligning
them horizontally if the Y-offset
property is set to
ly:self-alignment-interface::y-aligned-on-self
. However,
other mechanisms are often involved in vertical alignment: the
value of Y-offset
is just one variable taken into account.
This may make adjusting the value of some objects tricky.
The units are just half the vertical extent of the object, which
is usually quite small, so quite large numbers may be required.
A value of -1
aligns the lower edge of the object with
the reference point of the parent object, a value of 0
aligns the center of the object with the reference point of the
parent, and a value of 1
aligns the top edge of the object
with the reference point of the parent. The symbols DOWN
,
CENTER
, UP
may be substituted for -1, 0, 1
respectively.
Self-aligning objects in both directions
By setting both X-offset
and Y-offset
, an object may
be aligned in both directions simultaneously.
The following example shows how to adjust a fingering mark so that it nestles close to the note head.
a -\tweak #'self-alignment-X #0.5 % move horizontally left -\tweak #'Y-offset #ly:self-alignment-interface::y-aligned-on-self -\tweak #'self-alignment-Y #-1 % move vertically up -3 % third finger
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[ < Using the self-alignment-interface ] | [ Up : Aligning objects ] | [ Vertical grouping of grobs > ] |
Using the break-alignable-interface
Rehearsal marks and bar numbers may be aligned with notation
objects other than bar lines. These objects include ambitus
,
breathing-sign
, clef
, custos
, staff-bar
,
left-edge
, key-cancellation
, key-signature
, and
time-signature
.
By default, rehearsal marks and bar numbers will be horizontally centered above the object:
e1 % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the Clef \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(clef) \key a \major \clef treble \mark "↓" e % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the TimeSignature \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(time-signature) \key a \major \clef treble \time 3/4 \mark "↓" e2.
A list of possible target alignment objects may be specified. If
some of the objects are invisible at that point due to the setting
of break-visibility
or the explicit visibility settings for
keys and clefs, the rehearsal mark or bar number is aligned to the
first object in the list which is visible. If no objects in the
list are visible the object is aligned to the bar line. If the bar
line is invisible the object is aligned to the place where the bar
line would be.
e1 % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the Key Signature \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(key-signature clef) \key a \major \clef treble \mark "↓" e % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the Clef \set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(key-signature clef) \key a \minor \clef bass \mark "↓" e,
The alignment of the rehearsal mark relative to the notation object can be changed, as shown in the following example. In a score with multiple staves, this setting should be done for all the staves.
% The RehearsalMark will be centered above the KeySignature \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(key-signature) \key a \major \clef treble \time 4/4 \mark "↓" e1 % The RehearsalMark will be aligned with the left edge of the KeySignature \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor-alignment = #LEFT \mark "↓" \key a \major e % The RehearsalMark will be aligned with the right edge of the KeySignature \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor-alignment = #RIGHT \key a \major \mark "↓" e
The rehearsal mark can also be offset to the right or left of the left edge by an arbitrary amount. The units are staff-spaces:
% The RehearsalMark will be aligned with the left edge of the KeySignature % and then shifted right by 3.5 staff-spaces \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(key-signature) \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor = #3.5 \key a \major \mark "↓" e % The RehearsalMark will be aligned with the left edge of the KeySignature % and then shifted left by 2 staff-spaces \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor = #-2 \key a \major \mark "↓" e
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[ < Using the break-alignable-interface ] | [ Up : Advanced tweaks ] | [ Modifying stencils > ] |
5.5.2 Vertical grouping of grobs
The VerticalAlignment and VerticalAxisGroup grobs work together. VerticalAxisGroup groups together different grobs like Staff, Lyrics, etc. VerticalAlignment then vertically aligns the different grobs grouped together by VerticalAxisGroup. There is usually only one VerticalAlignment per score but every Staff, Lyrics, etc. has its own VerticalAxisGroup.
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[ < Vertical grouping of grobs ] | [ Up : Advanced tweaks ] | [ Modifying shapes > ] |
5.5.3 Modifying stencils
All layout objects have a stencil
property which is part of
the grob-interface
. By default, this property is usually
set to a function specific to the object that is tailor-made to
render the symbol which represents it in the output. For example,
the standard setting for the stencil
property of the
MultiMeasureRest
object is ly:multi-measure-rest::print
.
The standard symbol for any object can be replaced by modifying the
stencil
property to reference a different, specially-written,
procedure. This requires a high level of knowledge of the internal
workings of LilyPond, but there is an easier way which can often
produce adequate results.
This is to set the stencil
property to the procedure which
prints text – ly:text-interface::print
– and to add a
text
property to the object which is set to contain the
markup text which produces the required symbol. Due to the
flexibility of markup, much can be achieved – see in particular
Graphic notation inside markup.
The following example demonstrates this by changing the note head symbol to a cross within a circle.
XinO = { \once \override NoteHead #'stencil = #ly:text-interface::print \once \override NoteHead #'text = \markup { \combine \halign #-0.7 \draw-circle #0.85 #0.2 ##f \musicglyph #"noteheads.s2cross" } } \relative c'' { a a \XinO a a }
Any of the glyphs in the feta Font can be supplied to the
\musicglyph
markup command – see The Feta font.
See also
Notation Reference: Graphic notation inside markup, Formatting text, Text markup commands, The Feta font.
[ << Changing defaults ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Interfaces for programmers >> ] | ||
[ < Modifying stencils ] | [ Up : Advanced tweaks ] | [ Modifying ties and slurs > ] |
5.5.4 Modifying shapes
Modifying ties and slurs |
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[ < Modifying shapes ] | [ Up : Modifying shapes ] | [ Interfaces for programmers > ] |
Modifying ties and slurs
Ties, slurs and phrasing slurs are drawn as third-order Bézier curves. If the shape of the tie or slur which is calculated automatically is not optimum, the shape may be modified manually by explicitly specifying the four control points required to define a third-order Bézier curve.
Third-order or cubic Bézier curves are defined by four control points. The first and fourth control points are precisely the starting and ending points of the curve. The intermediate two control points define the shape. Animations showing how the curve is drawn can be found on the web, but the following description may be helpful. The curve starts from the first control point heading directly towards the second, gradually bending over to head towards the third and continuing to bend over to head towards the fourth, arriving there travelling directly from the third control point. The curve is entirely contained in the quadrilateral defined by the four control points.
Here is an example of a case where the tie is not optimum, and
where \tieDown
would not help.
<< { e1 ~ e } \\ { r4 <g c,> <g c,> <g c,> } >>
One way of improving this tie is to manually modify its control points, as follows.
The coordinates of the Bézier control points are specified in units of staff-spaces. The X coordinate is relative to the reference point of the note to which the tie or slur is attached, and the Y coordinate is relative to the staff center line. The coordinates are entered as a list of four pairs of decimal numbers (reals). One approach is to estimate the coordinates of the two end points, and then guess the two intermediate points. The optimum values are then found by trial and error.
It is useful to remember that a symmetric curve requires symmetric control points, and that Bézier curves have the useful property that transformations of the curve such as translation, rotation and scaling can be achieved by applying the same transformation to the curve’s control points.
For the example above the following override gives a satisfactory tie:
<< \once \override Tie #'control-points = #'((1 . -1) (3 . 0.6) (12.5 . 0.6) (14.5 . -1)) { e1 ~ e1 } \\ { r4 <g c,> <g c,> <g c,>4 } >>
Known issues and warnings
It is not possible to modify shapes of ties or slurs by changing
the control-points
property if there are more than one at
the same musical moment, not even by using the \tweak
command.
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[ < Modifying ties and slurs ] | [ Up : Top ] | [ Music functions > ] |
6. Interfaces for programmers
Advanced tweaks may be performed by using Scheme. If you are not familiar with Scheme, you may wish to read our Scheme tutorial.
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[ < Interfaces for programmers ] | [ Up : Interfaces for programmers ] | [ Overview of music functions > ] |
6.1 Music functions
This section discusses how to create music functions within LilyPond.
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[ < Music functions ] | [ Up : Music functions ] | [ Simple substitution functions > ] |
6.1.1 Overview of music functions
Making a function which substitutes a variable into LilyPond code is easy. The general form of these functions is
function = #(define-music-function (parser location var1 var2...vari... ) (var1-type? var2-type?...vari-type?...) #{ ...music... #})
where
vari | ith variable |
vari-type? | type of ith variable |
...music... | normal LilyPond input, using
variables as |
There following input types may be used as variables in a music function. This list is not exhaustive; see other documentation specifically about Scheme for more variable types.
Input type | vari-type? notation |
---|---|
Integer | |
Float (decimal number) | |
Text string | |
Markup | |
Music expression | |
A pair of variables | |
The parser
and location
arguments are mandatory,
and are used in some advanced situations. The parser
argument is used to gain access to the value of another LilyPond
variable. The location
argument
is used to set the ‘origin’ of the music expression that is built
by the music function, so that in case of a syntax error LilyPond
can tell the user an appropriate place to look in the input file.
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[ < Overview of music functions ] | [ Up : Music functions ] | [ Paired substitution functions > ] |
6.1.2 Simple substitution functions
Here is a simple example,
padText = #(define-music-function (parser location padding) (number?) #{ \once \override TextScript #'padding = #$padding #}) \relative c''' { c4^"piu mosso" b a b \padText #1.8 c4^"piu mosso" d e f \padText #2.6 c4^"piu mosso" fis a g }
Music expressions may be substituted as well,
custosNote = #(define-music-function (parser location note) (ly:music?) #{ \once \override Voice.NoteHead #'stencil = #ly:text-interface::print \once \override Voice.NoteHead #'text = \markup \musicglyph #"custodes.mensural.u0" \once \override Voice.Stem #'stencil = ##f $note #}) { c' d' e' f' \custosNote g' }
Multiple variables may be used,
tempoMark = #(define-music-function (parser location padding marktext) (number? string?) #{ \once \override Score . RehearsalMark #'padding = $padding \once \override Score . RehearsalMark #'extra-spacing-width = #'(+inf.0 . -inf.0) \mark \markup { \bold $marktext } #}) \relative c'' { c2 e \tempoMark #3.0 #"Allegro" g c }
[ << Interfaces for programmers ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Literature list >> ] | ||
[ < Simple substitution functions ] | [ Up : Music functions ] | [ Mathematics in functions > ] |
6.1.3 Paired substitution functions
Some \override
commands require a pair of numbers
(called a cons cell
in Scheme). To pass these numbers
into a function, either use a pair?
variable, or
insert the cons
into the music function.
manualBeam = #(define-music-function (parser location beg-end) (pair?) #{ \once \override Beam #'positions = #$beg-end #}) \relative { \manualBeam #'(3 . 6) c8 d e f }
or
manualBeam = #(define-music-function (parser location beg end) (number? number?) #{ \once \override Beam #'positions = #(cons $beg $end) #}) \relative { \manualBeam #3 #6 c8 d e f }
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[ < Paired substitution functions ] | [ Up : Music functions ] | [ Void functions > ] |
6.1.4 Mathematics in functions
Music functions can involve Scheme programming in addition to simple substitution,
AltOn = #(define-music-function (parser location mag) (number?) #{ \override Stem #'length = #$(* 7.0 mag) \override NoteHead #'font-size = #$(inexact->exact (* (/ 6.0 (log 2.0)) (log mag))) #}) AltOff = { \revert Stem #'length \revert NoteHead #'font-size } { c'2 \AltOn #0.5 c'4 c' \AltOn #1.5 c' c' \AltOff c'2 }
This example may be rewritten to pass in music expressions,
withAlt = #(define-music-function (parser location mag music) (number? ly:music?) #{ \override Stem #'length = #$(* 7.0 mag) \override NoteHead #'font-size = #$(inexact->exact (* (/ 6.0 (log 2.0)) (log mag))) $music \revert Stem #'length \revert NoteHead #'font-size #}) { c'2 \withAlt #0.5 {c'4 c'} \withAlt #1.5 {c' c'} c'2 }
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[ < Mathematics in functions ] | [ Up : Music functions ] | [ Functions without arguments > ] |
6.1.5 Void functions
A music function must return a music expression, but sometimes we
may want to have a function which does not involve music (such as
turning off Point and Click). To do this, we return a void
music expression.
That is why the form
that is returned is the (make-music ...)
. With the
'void
property set to #t
, the parser is told to
actually disregard this returned music
expression. Thus the important part of the void music function is the
processing done by the function, not the music expression that is
returned.
noPointAndClick = #(define-music-function (parser location) () (ly:set-option 'point-and-click #f) (make-music 'SequentialMusic 'void #t)) ... \noPointAndClick % disable point and click
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[ < Void functions ] | [ Up : Music functions ] | [ Overview of available music functions > ] |
6.1.6 Functions without arguments
In most cases a function without arguments should be written with an variable,
dolce = \markup{ \italic \bold dolce }
However, in rare cases it may be useful to create a music function without arguments,
displayBarNum = #(define-music-function (parser location) () (if (eq? #t (ly:get-option 'display-bar-numbers)) #{ \once \override Score.BarNumber #'break-visibility = ##f #} #{#}))
To actually display bar numbers where this function is called,
invoke lilypond
with
lilypond -d display-bar-numbers FILENAME.ly
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[ < Functions without arguments ] | [ Up : Music functions ] | [ Programmer interfaces > ] |
6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
The following commands are music functions
-
acciaccatura
- music (music) -
Create an acciaccatura from the following music expression
-
addChordShape
- key-symbol (symbol) tuning (pair) shape-definition (unknown) -
Add chord shape shape-definition to the chord-shape-table hash with the key (cons key-symbol tuning).
-
addInstrumentDefinition
- name (string) lst (list) -
Create instrument name with properties list.
-
addQuote
- name (string) music (music) -
Define music as a quotable music expression named name
-
afterGrace
- main (music) grace (music) -
Create grace note(s) after a main music expression.
-
allowPageTurn
-
Allow a page turn. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.
-
applyContext
- proc (procedure) -
Modify context properties with Scheme procedure proc.
-
applyMusic
- func (procedure) music (music) -
Apply procedure func to music.
-
applyOutput
- ctx (symbol) proc (procedure) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
appoggiatura
- music (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
assertBeamQuant
- l (pair) r (pair) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
assertBeamSlope
- comp (procedure) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
autochange
- music (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
balloonGrobText
- grob-name (symbol) offset (pair of numbers) text (markup) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
balloonText
- offset (pair of numbers) text (markup) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
bar
- type (string) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
barNumberCheck
- n (integer) -
Print a warning if the current bar number is not n.
-
bendAfter
- delta (unknown) -
Create a fall or doit of pitch interval delta.
-
breathe
-
Insert a breath mark.
-
clef
- type (string) -
Set the current clef to type.
-
cueDuring
- what (string) dir (direction) main-music (music) -
Insert contents of quote what corresponding to main-music, in a CueVoice oriented by dir.
-
displayLilyMusic
- music (music) -
Display the LilyPond input representation of music to the console.
-
displayMusic
- music (music) -
Display the internal representation of music to the console.
-
endSpanners
- music (music) -
Terminate the next spanner prematurely after exactly one note without the need of a specific end spanner.
-
featherDurations
- factor (moment) argument (music) -
Adjust durations of music in argument by rational factor.
-
grace
- music (music) -
Insert music as grace notes.
-
includePageLayoutFile
-
Include the file <basename>-page-layout.ly. Deprecated as part of two-pass spacing.
-
instrumentSwitch
- name (string) -
Switch instrument to name, which must be predefined with ddInstrumentDefinition.
-
keepWithTag
- tag (symbol) music (music) -
Include only elements of music that are tagged with tag.
-
killCues
- music (music) -
Remove cue notes from music.
-
label
- label (symbol) -
Create label as a bookmarking label
-
makeClusters
- arg (music) -
Display chords in arg as clusters
-
musicMap
- proc (procedure) mus (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
noPageBreak
-
Forbid a page break. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.
-
noPageTurn
-
Forbid a page turn. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.
-
octaveCheck
- pitch-note (music) -
octave check
-
oldaddlyrics
- music (music) lyrics (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
ottava
- octave (number) -
set the octavation
-
overrideProperty
- name (string) property (symbol) value (any type) -
Set property to value in all grobs named name. The name argument is a string of the form
"Context.GrobName"
or"GrobName"
-
pageBreak
-
Force a page break. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.
-
pageTurn
-
Force a page turn between two scores or top-level markups.
-
parallelMusic
- voice-ids (list) music (music) -
Define parallel music sequences, separated by ’|’ (bar check signs), and assign them to the identifiers provided in voice-ids.
voice-ids: a list of music identifiers (symbols containing only letters)
music: a music sequence, containing BarChecks as limiting expressions.
Example:
\parallelMusic #'(A B C) { c c | d d | e e | d d | e e | f f | } <==> A = { c c | d d | } B = { d d | e e | } C = { e e | f f | }
-
parenthesize
- arg (music) -
Tag arg to be parenthesized.
-
partcombine
- part1 (music) part2 (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
pitchedTrill
- main-note (music) secondary-note (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
pointAndClickOff
-
(undocumented; fixme)
-
pointAndClickOn
-
(undocumented; fixme)
-
quoteDuring
- what (string) main-music (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
removeWithTag
- tag (symbol) music (music) -
Remove elements of music that are tagged with tag.
-
resetRelativeOctave
- reference-note (music) -
Set the octave inside a \relative section.
-
rightHandFinger
- finger (number or string) -
Define a StrokeFingerEvent
-
scaleDurations
- fraction (pair of numbers) music (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
scoreTweak
- name (string) -
Include the score tweak, if exists.
-
shiftDurations
- dur (integer) dots (integer) arg (music) -
spacingTweaks
- parameters (list) -
Set the system stretch, by reading the ’system-stretch property of the ‘parameters’ assoc list.
-
storePredefinedDiagram
- chord (music) tuning (pair) diagram-definition (unknown) -
Add predefined fret diagram defined by
diagram-definition
for the chord pitcheschord
and the stringTuningtuning
. -
tag
- tag (symbol) arg (music) -
Add tag to the
tags
property of arg. -
tocItem
- text (markup) -
Add a line to the table of content, using the
tocItemMarkup
paper variable markup -
transposedCueDuring
- what (string) dir (direction) pitch-note (music) main-music (music) -
Insert notes from the part what into a voice called
cue
, using the transposition defined by pitch-note. This happens simultaneously with main-music, which is usually a rest. The argument dir determines whether the cue notes should be notated as a first or second voice. -
transposition
- pitch-note (music) -
Set instrument transposition
-
tweak
- sym (symbol) val (any type) arg (music) -
Add
sym . val
to thetweaks
property of arg. -
unfoldRepeats
- music (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
withMusicProperty
- sym (symbol) val (any type) music (music) -
Set sym to val in music.
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[ < Overview of available music functions ] | [ Up : Interfaces for programmers ] | [ Input variables and Scheme > ] |
6.2 Programmer interfaces
This section contains information about mixing LilyPond and Scheme.
6.2.1 Input variables and Scheme | ||
6.2.2 Internal music representation |
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[ < Programmer interfaces ] | [ Up : Programmer interfaces ] | [ Internal music representation > ] |
6.2.1 Input variables and Scheme
The input format supports the notion of variables: in the following
example, a music expression is assigned to a variable with the name
traLaLa
.
traLaLa = { c'4 d'4 }
There is also a form of scoping: in the following example, the
\layout
block also contains a traLaLa
variable, which is
independent of the outer \traLaLa
.
traLaLa = { c'4 d'4 } \layout { traLaLa = 1.0 }
In effect, each input file is a scope, and all \header
,
\midi
, and \layout
blocks are scopes nested inside that
toplevel scope.
Both variables and scoping are implemented in the GUILE module system. An anonymous Scheme module is attached to each scope. An assignment of the form
traLaLa = { c'4 d'4 }
is internally converted to a Scheme definition
(define traLaLa Scheme value of `...
')
This means that input variables and Scheme variables may be freely
mixed. In the following example, a music fragment is stored in the
variable traLaLa
, and duplicated using Scheme. The result is
imported in a \score
block by means of a second variable
twice
:
traLaLa = { c'4 d'4 } %% dummy action to deal with parser lookahead #(display "this needs to be here, sorry!") #(define newLa (map ly:music-deep-copy (list traLaLa traLaLa))) #(define twice (make-sequential-music newLa)) { \twice }
In this example, the assignment happens after parser has verified that
nothing interesting happens after traLaLa = { ... }
. Without
the dummy statement in the above example, the newLa
definition
is executed before traLaLa
is defined, leading to a syntax
error.
The above example shows how to ‘export’ music expressions from the
input to the Scheme interpreter. The opposite is also possible. By
wrapping a Scheme value in the function ly:export
, a Scheme
value is interpreted as if it were entered in LilyPond syntax.
Instead of defining \twice
, the example above could also have
been written as
... { #(ly:export (make-sequential-music (list newLa))) }
Scheme code is evaluated as soon as the parser encounters it. To define some Scheme code in a macro (to be called later), use Void functions, or
#(define (nopc) (ly:set-option 'point-and-click #f)) ... #(nopc) { c'4 }
Known issues and warnings
Mixing Scheme and LilyPond variables is not possible with the
--safe
option.
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6.2.2 Internal music representation
When a music expression is parsed, it is converted into a set of Scheme music objects. The defining property of a music object is that it takes up time. Time is a rational number that measures the length of a piece of music in whole notes.
A music object has three kinds of types:
-
music name: Each music expression has a name. For example, a note
leads to a
NoteEvent, and
\simultaneous
leads to a SimultaneousMusic. A list of all expressions available is in the Internals Reference manual, under Music expressions. -
‘type’ or interface: Each music name has several ‘types’ or
interfaces, for example, a note is an
event
, but it is also anote-event
, arhythmic-event
, and amelodic-event
. All classes of music are listed in the Internals Reference, under Music classes. -
C++ object: Each music object is represented by an object of the C++
class
Music
.
The actual information of a music expression is stored in properties.
For example, a
NoteEvent has pitch
and
duration
properties that store the pitch and duration of that
note. A list of all properties available is in the internals manual,
under
Music properties.
A compound music expression is a music object that contains other
music objects in its properties. A list of objects can be stored in
the elements
property of a music object, or a single ‘child’
music object in the element
property. For example,
SequentialMusic has its children in elements
,
and
GraceMusic has its single argument in
element
. The body of a repeat is stored in the element
property of
RepeatedMusic, and the alternatives in
elements
.
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[ < Internal music representation ] | [ Up : Interfaces for programmers ] | [ Displaying music expressions > ] |
6.3 Building complicated functions
This section explains how to gather the information necessary to create complicated music functions.
6.3.1 Displaying music expressions | ||
6.3.2 Music properties | ||
6.3.3 Doubling a note with slurs (example) | ||
6.3.4 Adding articulation to notes (example) |
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[ < Building complicated functions ] | [ Up : Building complicated functions ] | [ Music properties > ] |
6.3.1 Displaying music expressions
When writing a music function it is often instructive to inspect how
a music expression is stored internally. This can be done with the
music function \displayMusic
{ \displayMusic { c'4\f } }
will display
(make-music 'SequentialMusic 'elements (list (make-music 'EventChord 'elements (list (make-music 'NoteEvent 'duration (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1) 'pitch (ly:make-pitch 0 0 0)) (make-music 'AbsoluteDynamicEvent 'text "f")))))
By default, LilyPond will print these messages to the console along
with all the other messages. To split up these messages and save
the results of \display{STUFF}
, redirect the output to
a file.
lilypond file.ly >display.txt
With a bit of reformatting, the above information is easier to read,
(make-music 'SequentialMusic 'elements (list (make-music 'EventChord 'elements (list (make-music 'NoteEvent 'duration (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1) 'pitch (ly:make-pitch 0 0 0)) (make-music 'AbsoluteDynamicEvent 'text "f")))))
A { ... }
music sequence has the name SequentialMusic
,
and its inner expressions are stored as a list in its 'elements
property. A note is represented as an EventChord
expression,
containing a NoteEvent
object (storing the duration and
pitch properties) and any extra information (in this case, an
AbsoluteDynamicEvent
with a "f"
text property.
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6.3.2 Music properties
The NoteEvent
object is the first object of the
'elements
property of someNote
.
someNote = c' \displayMusic \someNote ===> (make-music 'EventChord 'elements (list (make-music 'NoteEvent 'duration (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1) 'pitch (ly:make-pitch 0 0 0))))
The display-scheme-music
function is the function used by
\displayMusic
to display the Scheme representation of a music
expression.
#(display-scheme-music (first (ly:music-property someNote 'elements))) ===> (make-music 'NoteEvent 'duration (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1) 'pitch (ly:make-pitch 0 0 0))
Then the note pitch is accessed through the 'pitch
property
of the NoteEvent
object,
#(display-scheme-music (ly:music-property (first (ly:music-property someNote 'elements)) 'pitch)) ===> (ly:make-pitch 0 0 0)
The note pitch can be changed by setting this ’pitch property,
#(set! (ly:music-property (first (ly:music-property someNote 'elements)) 'pitch) (ly:make-pitch 0 1 0)) ;; set the pitch to d'. \displayLilyMusic \someNote ===> d'
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[ < Music properties ] | [ Up : Building complicated functions ] | [ Adding articulation to notes (example) > ] |
6.3.3 Doubling a note with slurs (example)
Suppose we want to create a function which translates
input like a
into a( a)
. We begin
by examining the internal representation of the music
we want to end up with.
\displayMusic{ a'( a') } ===> (make-music 'SequentialMusic 'elements (list (make-music 'EventChord 'elements (list (make-music 'NoteEvent 'duration (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1) 'pitch (ly:make-pitch 0 5 0)) (make-music 'SlurEvent 'span-direction -1))) (make-music 'EventChord 'elements (list (make-music 'NoteEvent 'duration (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1) 'pitch (ly:make-pitch 0 5 0)) (make-music 'SlurEvent 'span-direction 1)))))
The bad news is that the SlurEvent
expressions
must be added ‘inside’ the note (or more precisely,
inside the EventChord
expression).
Now we examine the input,
(make-music 'SequentialMusic 'elements (list (make-music 'EventChord 'elements (list (make-music 'NoteEvent 'duration (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1) 'pitch (ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))))))
So in our function, we need to clone this expression (so that we
have two notes to build the sequence), add SlurEvents
to the
'elements
property of each one, and finally make a
SequentialMusic
with the two EventChords
.
doubleSlur = #(define-music-function (parser location note) (ly:music?) "Return: { note ( note ) }. `note' is supposed to be an EventChord." (let ((note2 (ly:music-deep-copy note))) (set! (ly:music-property note 'elements) (cons (make-music 'SlurEvent 'span-direction -1) (ly:music-property note 'elements))) (set! (ly:music-property note2 'elements) (cons (make-music 'SlurEvent 'span-direction 1) (ly:music-property note2 'elements))) (make-music 'SequentialMusic 'elements (list note note2))))
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6.3.4 Adding articulation to notes (example)
The easy way to add articulation to notes is to merge two music expressions into one context, as explained in Creating contexts. However, suppose that we want to write a music function which does this.
A $variable
inside the #{...#}
notation is like
using a regular \variable
in classical LilyPond
notation. We know that
{ \music -. -> }
will not work in LilyPond. We could avoid this problem by attaching the articulation to a fake note,
{ << \music s1*0-.-> }
but for the sake of this example, we will learn how to do this in Scheme. We begin by examining our input and desired output,
% input \displayMusic c4 ===> (make-music 'EventChord 'elements (list (make-music 'NoteEvent 'duration (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1) 'pitch (ly:make-pitch -1 0 0)))) ===== % desired output \displayMusic c4-> ===> (make-music 'EventChord 'elements (list (make-music 'NoteEvent 'duration (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1) 'pitch (ly:make-pitch -1 0 0)) (make-music 'ArticulationEvent 'articulation-type "marcato")))
We see that a note (c4
) is represented as an EventChord
expression, with a NoteEvent
expression in its elements list. To
add a marcato articulation, an ArticulationEvent
expression must
be added to the elements property of the EventChord
expression.
To build this function, we begin with
(define (add-marcato event-chord) "Add a marcato ArticulationEvent to the elements of `event-chord', which is supposed to be an EventChord expression." (let ((result-event-chord (ly:music-deep-copy event-chord))) (set! (ly:music-property result-event-chord 'elements) (cons (make-music 'ArticulationEvent 'articulation-type "marcato") (ly:music-property result-event-chord 'elements))) result-event-chord))
The first line is the way to define a function in Scheme: the function
name is add-marcato
, and has one variable called
event-chord
. In Scheme, the type of variable is often clear
from its name. (this is good practice in other programming languages,
too!)
"Add a marcato..."
is a description of what the function does. This is not strictly necessary, but just like clear variable names, it is good practice.
(let ((result-event-chord (ly:music-deep-copy event-chord)))
let
is used to declare local variables. Here we use one local
variable, named result-event-chord
, to which we give the value
(ly:music-deep-copy event-chord)
. ly:music-deep-copy
is
a function specific to LilyPond, like all functions prefixed by
ly:
. It is use to make a copy of a music
expression. Here we copy event-chord
(the parameter of the
function). Recall that our purpose is to add a marcato to an
EventChord
expression. It is better to not modify the
EventChord
which was given as an argument, because it may be
used elsewhere.
Now we have a result-event-chord
, which is a
NoteEventChord
expression and is a copy of event-chord
. We
add the marcato to its elements list property.
(set! place new-value)
Here, what we want to set (the ‘place’) is the ‘elements’ property of
result-event-chord
expression.
(ly:music-property result-event-chord 'elements)
ly:music-property
is the function used to access music properties
(the 'elements
, 'duration
, 'pitch
, etc, that we
see in the \displayMusic
output above). The new value is the
former elements property, with an extra item: the
ArticulationEvent
expression, which we copy from the
\displayMusic
output,
(cons (make-music 'ArticulationEvent 'articulation-type "marcato") (ly:music-property result-event-chord 'elements))
cons
is used to add an element to a list without modifying the
original list. This is what we
want: the same list as before, plus the new ArticulationEvent
expression. The order inside the elements property is not important here.
Finally, once we have added the marcato articulation to its elements
property, we can return result-event-chord
, hence the last line of
the function.
Now we transform the add-marcato
function into a music
function,
addMarcato = #(define-music-function (parser location event-chord) (ly:music?) "Add a marcato ArticulationEvent to the elements of `event-chord', which is supposed to be an EventChord expression." (let ((result-event-chord (ly:music-deep-copy event-chord))) (set! (ly:music-property result-event-chord 'elements) (cons (make-music 'ArticulationEvent 'articulation-type "marcato") (ly:music-property result-event-chord 'elements))) result-event-chord))
We may verify that this music function works correctly,
\displayMusic \addMarcato c4
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[ < Adding articulation to notes (example) ] | [ Up : Interfaces for programmers ] | [ Markup construction in Scheme > ] |
6.4 Markup programmer interface
Markups are implemented as special Scheme functions which produce a Stencil object given a number of arguments.
6.4.1 Markup construction in Scheme | ||
6.4.2 How markups work internally | ||
6.4.3 New markup command definition | ||
6.4.4 New markup list command definition |
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6.4.1 Markup construction in Scheme
The markup
macro builds markup expressions in Scheme while
providing a LilyPond-like syntax. For example,
(markup #:column (#:line (#:bold #:italic "hello" #:raise 0.4 "world") #:larger #:line ("foo" "bar" "baz")))
is equivalent to:
\markup \column { \line { \bold \italic "hello" \raise #0.4 "world" } \larger \line { foo bar baz } }
This example demonstrates the main translation rules between regular LilyPond markup syntax and Scheme markup syntax.
LilyPond
Scheme
\markup markup1
(markup markup1)
\markup { markup1 markup2 ... }
(markup markup1 markup2 ... )
\command
#:command
\variable
variable
\center-column { ... }
#:center-column ( ... )
string
"string"
#scheme-arg
scheme-arg
The whole Scheme language is accessible inside the
markup
macro. For example, You may use function calls inside
markup
in order to manipulate character strings. This is
useful when defining new markup commands (see
New markup command definition).
Known issues and warnings
The markup-list argument of commands such as #:line
,
#:center
, and #:column
cannot be a variable or
the result of a function call.
(markup #:line (function-that-returns-markups)) |
is invalid. One should use the make-line-markup
,
make-center-markup
, or make-column-markup
functions
instead,
(markup (make-line-markup (function-that-returns-markups))) |
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6.4.2 How markups work internally
In a markup like
\raise #0.5 "text example"
\raise
is actually represented by the raise-markup
function. The markup expression is stored as
(list raise-markup 0.5 (list simple-markup "text example"))
When the markup is converted to printable objects (Stencils), the
raise-markup
function is called as
(apply raise-markup \layout object list of property alists 0.5 the "text example" markup)
The raise-markup
function first creates the stencil for the
text example
string, and then it raises that Stencil by 0.5
staff space. This is a rather simple example; more complex examples
are in the rest
of this section, and in ‘scm/define-markup-commands.scm’.
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6.4.3 New markup command definition
New markup commands can be defined
with the define-markup-command
Scheme macro.
(define-markup-command (command-name layout props arg1 arg2 ...) (arg1-type? arg2-type? ...) ..command body..) |
The arguments are
- argi
ith command argument
- argi-type?
a type predicate for the ith argument
- layout
the ‘layout’ definition
- props
a list of alists, containing all active properties.
As a simple example, we show how to add a \smallcaps
command,
which selects a small caps font. Normally we could select the
small caps font,
\markup { \override #'(font-shape . caps) Text-in-caps }
This selects the caps font by setting the font-shape
property to
#'caps
for interpreting Text-in-caps
.
To make the above available as \smallcaps
command, we must
define a function using define-markup-command
. The command should
take a single argument of type markup
. Therefore the start of the
definition should read
(define-markup-command (smallcaps layout props argument) (markup?)
What follows is the content of the command: we should interpret
the argument
as a markup, i.e.,
(interpret-markup layout … argument)
This interpretation should add '(font-shape . caps)
to the active
properties, so we substitute the following for the … in the
above example:
(cons (list '(font-shape . caps) ) props)
The variable props
is a list of alists, and we prepend to it by
cons’ing a list with the extra setting.
Suppose that we are typesetting a recitative in an opera and
we would like to define a command that will show character names in a
custom manner. Names should be printed with small caps and moved a
bit to the left and top. We will define a \character
command
which takes into account the necessary translation and uses the newly
defined \smallcaps
command:
#(define-markup-command (character layout props name) (string?) "Print the character name in small caps, translated to the left and top. Syntax: \\character #\"name\"" (interpret-markup layout props (markup #:hspace 0 #:translate (cons -3 1) #:smallcaps name)))
There is one complication that needs explanation: texts above and below
the staff are moved vertically to be at a certain distance (the
padding
property) from the staff and the notes. To make sure
that this mechanism does not annihilate the vertical effect of our
#:translate
, we add an empty string (#:hspace 0
) before the
translated text. Now the #:hspace 0
will be put above the notes,
and the
name
is moved in relation to that empty string. The net effect is
that the text is moved to the upper left.
The final result is as follows:
{ c''^\markup \character #"Cleopatra" e'^\markup \character #"Giulio Cesare" }
We have used the caps
font shape, but suppose that our font
does not have a small-caps variant. In that case we have to fake
the small caps font by setting a string in upcase with the first
letter a little larger:
#(define-markup-command (smallcaps layout props str) (string?) "Print the string argument in small caps." (interpret-markup layout props (make-line-markup (map (lambda (s) (if (= (string-length s) 0) s (markup #:large (string-upcase (substring s 0 1)) #:translate (cons -0.6 0) #:tiny (string-upcase (substring s 1))))) (string-split str #\Space)))))
The smallcaps
command first splits its string argument into
tokens separated by spaces ((string-split str #\Space)
); for
each token, a markup is built with the first letter made large and
upcased (#:large (string-upcase (substring s 0 1))
), and a
second markup built with the following letters made tiny and upcased
(#:tiny (string-upcase (substring s 1))
). As LilyPond
introduces a space between markups on a line, the second markup is
translated to the left (#:translate (cons -0.6 0) ...
). Then,
the markups built for each token are put in a line by
(make-line-markup ...)
. Finally, the resulting markup is passed
to the interpret-markup
function, with the layout
and
props
arguments.
Note: there is now an internal command \smallCaps
which can
be used to set text in small caps. See
Text markup commands, for details.
Known issues and warnings
Currently, the available combinations of arguments (after the standard
layout and props arguments) to a markup command defined with
define-markup-command
are limited as follows.
- (no argument)
- list
- markup
- markup markup
- scm
- scm markup
- scm scm
- scm scm markup
- scm scm markup markup
- scm markup markup
- scm scm scm
In the above table, scm represents native Scheme data types like ‘number’ or ‘string’.
As an example, it is not possible to use a markup command foo
with
four arguments defined as
#(define-markup-command (foo layout props num1 str1 num2 str2) (number? string? number? string?) ...)
If you apply it as, say,
\markup \foo #1 #"bar" #2 #"baz"
lilypond
complains that it cannot parse foo
due to its
unknown Scheme signature.
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6.4.4 New markup list command definition
Markup list commands are defined with the
define-markup-list-command
Scheme macro, which is similar to the
define-markup-command
macro described in
New markup command definition, except that where the latter returns
a single stencil, the former returns a list stencils.
In the following example, a \paragraph
markup list command is
defined, which returns a list of justified lines, the first one being
indented. The indent width is taken from the props
argument.
#(define-markup-list-command (paragraph layout props args) (markup-list?) (let ((indent (chain-assoc-get 'par-indent props 2))) (interpret-markup-list layout props (make-justified-lines-markup-list (cons (make-hspace-markup indent) args)))))
Besides the usual layout
and props
arguments, the
paragraph
markup list command takes a markup list argument, named
args
. The predicate for markup lists is markup-list?
.
First, the function gets the indent width, a property here named
par-indent
, from the property list props
If the property
is not found, the default value is 2
. Then, a list of justified
lines is made using the make-justified-lines-markup-list
function, which is related to the \justified-lines
built-in markup list command. An horizontal space is added at the
beginning using the make-hspace-markup
function. Finally, the
markup list is interpreted using the interpret-markup-list
function.
This new markup list command can be used as follows:
\markuplines { \paragraph { The art of music typography is called \italic {(plate) engraving.} The term derives from the traditional process of music printing. Just a few decades ago, sheet music was made by cutting and stamping the music into a zinc or pewter plate in mirror image. } \override-lines #'(par-indent . 4) \paragraph { The plate would be inked, the depressions caused by the cutting and stamping would hold ink. An image was formed by pressing paper to the plate. The stamping and cutting was completely done by hand. } }
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[ < New markup list command definition ] | [ Up : Interfaces for programmers ] | [ Context evaluation > ] |
6.5 Contexts for programmers
6.5.1 Context evaluation | ||
6.5.2 Running a function on all layout objects |
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6.5.1 Context evaluation
Contexts can be modified during interpretation with Scheme code. The syntax for this is
\applyContext function
function should be a Scheme function taking a single argument, being the context to apply it to. The following code will print the current bar number on the standard output during the compile:
\applyContext #(lambda (x) (format #t "\nWe were called in barnumber ~a.\n" (ly:context-property x 'currentBarNumber)))
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6.5.2 Running a function on all layout objects
The most versatile way of tuning an object is \applyOutput
. Its
syntax is
\applyOutput context proc
where proc is a Scheme function, taking three arguments.
When interpreted, the function proc is called for every layout object found in the context context, with the following arguments:
- the layout object itself,
- the context where the layout object was created, and
- the context where
\applyOutput
is processed.
In addition, the cause of the layout object, i.e., the music
expression or object that was responsible for creating it, is in the
object property cause
. For example, for a note head, this is a
NoteHead event, and for a
Stem object,
this is a
NoteHead object.
Here is a function to use for \applyOutput
; it blanks
note-heads on the center-line:
(define (blanker grob grob-origin context) (if (and (memq (ly:grob-property grob 'interfaces) note-head-interface) (eq? (ly:grob-property grob 'staff-position) 0)) (set! (ly:grob-property grob 'transparent) #t)))
6.6 Scheme procedures as properties
Properties (like thickness, direction, etc.) can be set at fixed values with \override, e.g.
\override Stem #'thickness = #2.0
Properties can also be set to a Scheme procedure,
\override Stem #'thickness = #(lambda (grob) (if (= UP (ly:grob-property grob 'direction)) 2.0 7.0)) c b a g b a g b
In this case, the procedure is executed as soon as the value of the property is requested during the formatting process.
Most of the typesetting engine is driven by such callbacks. Properties that typically use callbacks include
-
stencil
The printing routine, that constructs a drawing for the symbol
-
X-offset
The routine that sets the horizontal position
-
X-extent
The routine that computes the width of an object
The procedure always takes a single argument, being the grob.
If routines with multiple arguments must be called, the current grob
can be inserted with a grob closure. Here is a setting from
AccidentalSuggestion
,
(X-offset . ,(ly:make-simple-closure `(,+ ,(ly:make-simple-closure (list ly:self-alignment-interface::centered-on-x-parent)) ,(ly:make-simple-closure (list ly:self-alignment-interface::x-aligned-on-self)))))
In this example, both ly:self-alignment-interface::x-aligned-on-self
and
ly:self-alignment-interface::centered-on-x-parent
are called
with the grob as argument. The results are added with the +
function. To ensure that this addition is properly executed, the whole
thing is enclosed in ly:make-simple-closure
.
In fact, using a single procedure as property value is equivalent to
(ly:make-simple-closure (ly:make-simple-closure (list proc)))
The inner ly:make-simple-closure
supplies the grob as argument
to proc, the outer ensures that result of the function is
returned, rather than the simple-closure
object.
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6.7 Using Scheme code instead of \tweak
The main disadvantage of \tweak
is its syntactical
inflexibility. For example, the following produces a syntax error.
F = \tweak #'font-size #-3 -\flageolet \relative c'' { c4^\F c4_\F }
With other words, \tweak
doesn’t behave like an articulation
regarding the syntax; in particular, it can’t be attached with
^
and _
.
Using Scheme, this problem can be circumvented. The route to the
result is given in Adding articulation to notes (example),
especially how to use \displayMusic
as a helping guide.
F = #(let ((m (make-music 'ArticulationEvent 'articulation-type "flageolet"))) (set! (ly:music-property m 'tweaks) (acons 'font-size -3 (ly:music-property m 'tweaks))) m) \relative c'' { c4^\F c4_\F }
Here, the tweaks
properties of the flageolet object
m
(created with make-music
) are extracted with
ly:music-property
, a new key-value pair to change the
font size is prepended to the property list with the
acons
Scheme function, and the result is finally
written back with set!
. The last element of the
let
block is the return value, m
itself.
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[ < Using Scheme code instead of \tweak ] | [ Up : Interfaces for programmers ] | [ Literature list > ] |
6.8 Difficult tweaks
There are a few classes of difficult adjustments.
-
One type of difficult adjustment is the appearance of spanner objects,
such as slur and tie. Initially, only one of these objects is created,
and they can be adjusted with the normal mechanism. However, in some
cases the spanners cross line breaks. If this happens, these objects
are cloned. A separate object is created for every system that it is
in. These are clones of the original object and inherit all
properties, including
\override
s.In other words, an
\override
always affects all pieces of a broken spanner. To change only one part of a spanner at a line break, it is necessary to hook into the formatting process. Theafter-line-breaking
callback contains the Scheme procedure that is called after the line breaks have been determined, and layout objects have been split over different systems.In the following example, we define a procedure
my-callback
. This procedure- determines if we have been split across line breaks
- if yes, retrieves all the split objects
- checks if we are the last of the split objects
-
if yes, it sets
extra-offset
.
This procedure is installed into Tie, so the last part of the broken tie is translated up.
#(define (my-callback grob) (let* ( ; have we been split? (orig (ly:grob-original grob)) ; if yes, get the split pieces (our siblings) (siblings (if (ly:grob? orig) (ly:spanner-broken-into orig) '() ))) (if (and (>= (length siblings) 2) (eq? (car (last-pair siblings)) grob)) (ly:grob-set-property! grob 'extra-offset '(-2 . 5))))) \relative c'' { \override Tie #'after-line-breaking = #my-callback c1 ~ \break c2 ~ c }
When applying this trick, the new
after-line-breaking
callback should also call the old oneafter-line-breaking
, if there is one. For example, if using this withHairpin
,ly:hairpin::after-line-breaking
should also be called. - Some objects cannot be changed with
\override
for technical reasons. Examples of those areNonMusicalPaperColumn
andPaperColumn
. They can be changed with the\overrideProperty
function, which works similar to\once \override
, but uses a different syntax.\overrideProperty #"Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn" % Grob name #'line-break-system-details % Property name #'((next-padding . 20)) % Value
Note, however, that
\override
, applied toNoteMusicalPaperColumn
andPaperColumn
, still works as expected within\context
blocks.
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[ < Difficult tweaks ] | [ Up : Top ] | [ Notation manual tables > ] |
A. Literature list
If you need to know more about music notation, here are some interesting titles to read.
- Ignatzek 1995
Klaus Ignatzek, Die Jazzmethode für Klavier. Schott’s Söhne 1995. Mainz, Germany ISBN 3-7957-5140-3.
A tutorial introduction to playing Jazz on the piano. One of the first chapters contains an overview of chords in common use for Jazz music.
- Gerou 1996
-
Tom Gerou and Linda Lusk, Essential Dictionary of Music Notation. Alfred Publishing, Van Nuys CA ISBN 0-88284-768-6.
A concise, alphabetically ordered list of typesetting and music (notation) issues, covering most of the normal cases.
- Read 1968
Gardner Read, Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice. Taplinger Publishing, New York (2nd edition).
A standard work on music notation.
- Ross 1987
Ted Ross, Teach yourself the art of music engraving and processing. Hansen House, Miami, Florida 1987.
This book is about music engraving, i.e., professional typesetting. It contains directions on stamping, use of pens and notational conventions. The sections on reproduction technicalities and history are also interesting.
- Schirmer 2001
The G.Schirmer/AMP Manual of Style and Usage. G.Schirmer/AMP, NY, 2001. (This book can be ordered from the rental department.)
This manual specifically focuses on preparing print for publication by Schirmer. It discusses many details that are not in other, normal notation books. It also gives a good idea of what is necessary to bring printouts to publication quality.
- Stone 1980
-
Kurt Stone, Music Notation in the Twentieth Century. Norton, New York 1980.
This book describes music notation for modern serious music, but starts out with a thorough overview of existing traditional notation practices.
The source archive includes a more elaborate BibTeX bibliography of over 100 entries in the bibliography.
[ << Literature list ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Cheat sheet >> ] | ||
[ < Literature list ] | [ Up : Top ] | [ Chord name chart > ] |
B. Notation manual tables
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[ < Notation manual tables ] | [ Up : Notation manual tables ] | [ Common chord modifiers > ] |
B.1 Chord name chart
The following charts shows two standard systems for printing chord names, along with the pitches they represent.
[ << Notation manual tables ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Cheat sheet >> ] | ||
[ < Chord name chart ] | [ Up : Notation manual tables ] | [ Predefined fretboard diagrams > ] |
B.2 Common chord modifiers
The following table shows chord modifiers that can be used in
\chordmode
to generate standard chord structures.
Chord type | Intervals | Modifier(s) | Example |
Major | Major third, perfect fifth |
| |
Minor | Minor third, perfect fifth |
| |
Augmented | Major third, augmented fifth |
| |
Diminished | Minor third, diminished fifth |
| |
Dominant seventh | Major triad, minor seventh |
| |
Major seventh | Major triad, major seventh |
| |
Minor seventh | Minor triad, minor seventh |
| |
Diminished seventh | Diminished triad, diminished seventh |
| |
Augmented seventh | Augmented triad, minor seventh |
| |
Half-diminished seventh | Diminished triad, minor seventh |
| |
Minor-major seventh | Minor triad, major seventh |
| |
Major sixth | Major triad, sixth |
| |
Minor sixth | Minor triad, sixth |
| |
Dominant ninth | Dominant seventh, major ninth |
| |
Major ninth | Major seventh, major ninth |
| |
Minor ninth | Minor seventh, major ninth |
| |
Dominant eleventh | Dominant ninth, perfect eleventh |
| |
Major eleventh | Major ninth, perfect eleventh |
| |
Minor eleventh | Minor ninth, perfect eleventh |
| |
Dominant thirteenth | Dominant ninth, major thirteenth |
| |
Dominant thirteenth | Dominant eleventh, major thirteenth |
| |
Major thirteenth | Major eleventh, major thirteenth |
| |
Minor thirteenth | Minor eleventh, major thirteenth |
| |
Suspended second | Major second, perfect fifth |
| |
Suspended fourth | Perfect fourth, perfect fifth |
|
[ << Notation manual tables ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Cheat sheet >> ] | ||
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B.3 Predefined fretboard diagrams
The chart below shows the predefined fretboard diagrams.
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[ < Predefined fretboard diagrams ] | [ Up : Notation manual tables ] | [ List of colors > ] |
B.4 MIDI instruments
The following is a list of names that can be used for the
midiInstrument
property.
acoustic grand contrabass lead 7 (fifths) bright acoustic tremolo strings lead 8 (bass+lead) electric grand pizzicato strings pad 1 (new age) honky-tonk orchestral strings pad 2 (warm) electric piano 1 timpani pad 3 (polysynth) electric piano 2 string ensemble 1 pad 4 (choir) harpsichord string ensemble 2 pad 5 (bowed) clav synthstrings 1 pad 6 (metallic) celesta synthstrings 2 pad 7 (halo) glockenspiel choir aahs pad 8 (sweep) music box voice oohs fx 1 (rain) vibraphone synth voice fx 2 (soundtrack) marimba orchestra hit fx 3 (crystal) xylophone trumpet fx 4 (atmosphere) tubular bells trombone fx 5 (brightness) dulcimer tuba fx 6 (goblins) drawbar organ muted trumpet fx 7 (echoes) percussive organ french horn fx 8 (sci-fi) rock organ brass section sitar church organ synthbrass 1 banjo reed organ synthbrass 2 shamisen accordion soprano sax koto harmonica alto sax kalimba concertina tenor sax bagpipe acoustic guitar (nylon) baritone sax fiddle acoustic guitar (steel) oboe shanai electric guitar (jazz) english horn tinkle bell electric guitar (clean) bassoon agogo electric guitar (muted) clarinet steel drums overdriven guitar piccolo woodblock distorted guitar flute taiko drum guitar harmonics recorder melodic tom acoustic bass pan flute synth drum electric bass (finger) blown bottle reverse cymbal electric bass (pick) shakuhachi guitar fret noise fretless bass whistle breath noise slap bass 1 ocarina seashore slap bass 2 lead 1 (square) bird tweet synth bass 1 lead 2 (sawtooth) telephone ring synth bass 2 lead 3 (calliope) helicopter violin lead 4 (chiff) applause viola lead 5 (charang) gunshot cello lead 6 (voice)
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B.5 List of colors
Normal colors
Usage syntax is detailed in Coloring objects.
black white red green blue cyan magenta yellow grey darkred darkgreen darkblue darkcyan darkmagenta darkyellow
X color names
X color names come several variants:
Any name that is spelled as a single word with capitalization (e.g. ‘LightSlateBlue’) can also be spelled as space separated words without capitalization (e.g. ‘light slate blue’).
The word ‘grey’ can always be spelled ‘gray’ (e.g. ‘DarkSlateGray’).
Some names can take a numerical suffix (e.g. ‘LightSalmon4’).
Color Names without a numerical suffix:
snow GhostWhite WhiteSmoke gainsboro FloralWhite OldLace linen AntiqueWhite PapayaWhip BlanchedAlmond bisque PeachPuff NavajoWhite moccasin cornsilk ivory LemonChiffon seashell honeydew MintCream azure AliceBlue lavender LavenderBlush MistyRose white black DarkSlateGrey DimGrey SlateGrey LightSlateGrey grey LightGrey MidnightBlue navy NavyBlue CornflowerBlue DarkSlateBlue SlateBlue MediumSlateBlue LightSlateBlue MediumBlue RoyalBlue blue DodgerBlue DeepSkyBlue SkyBlue LightSkyBlue SteelBlue LightSteelBlue LightBlue PowderBlue PaleTurquoise DarkTurquoise MediumTurquoise turquoise cyan LightCyan CadetBlue MediumAquamarine aquamarine DarkGreen DarkOliveGreen DarkSeaGreen SeaGreen MediumSeaGreen LightSeaGreen PaleGreen SpringGreen LawnGreen green chartreuse MediumSpringGreen GreenYellow LimeGreen YellowGreen ForestGreen OliveDrab DarkKhaki khaki PaleGoldenrod LightGoldenrodYellow LightYellow yellow gold LightGoldenrod goldenrod DarkGoldenrod RosyBrown IndianRed SaddleBrown sienna peru burlywood beige wheat SandyBrown tan chocolate firebrick brown DarkSalmon salmon LightSalmon orange DarkOrange coral LightCoral tomato OrangeRed red HotPink DeepPink pink LightPink PaleVioletRed maroon MediumVioletRed VioletRed magenta violet plum orchid MediumOrchid DarkOrchid DarkViolet BlueViolet purple MediumPurple thistle DarkGrey DarkBlue DarkCyan DarkMagenta DarkRed LightGreen
Color names with a numerical suffix
In the following names the suffix N can be a number in the range 1-4:
snowN seashellN AntiqueWhiteN bisqueN PeachPuffN NavajoWhiteN LemonChiffonN cornsilkN ivoryN honeydewN LavenderBlushN MistyRoseN azureN SlateBlueN RoyalBlueN blueN DodgerBlueN SteelBlueN DeepSkyBlueN SkyBlueN LightSkyBlueN LightSteelBlueN LightBlueN LightCyanN PaleTurquoiseN CadetBlueN turquoiseN cyanN aquamarineN DarkSeaGreenN SeaGreenN PaleGreenN SpringGreenN greenN chartreuseN OliveDrabN DarkOliveGreenN khakiN LightGoldenrodN LightYellowN yellowN goldN goldenrodN DarkGoldenrodN RosyBrownN IndianRedN siennaN burlywoodN wheatN tanN chocolateN firebrickN brownN salmonN LightSalmonN orangeN DarkOrangeN coralN tomatoN OrangeRedN redN DeepPinkN HotPinkN pinkN LightPinkN PaleVioletRedN maroonN VioletRedN magentaN orchidN plumN MediumOrchidN DarkOrchidN purpleN MediumPurpleN thistleN
Grey Scale
A grey scale can be obtained using:
greyN
Where N is in the range 0-100.
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[ < List of colors ] | [ Up : Notation manual tables ] | [ Note head styles > ] |
B.6 The Feta font
The following symbols are available in the Emmentaler font and may be
accessed directly using text markup such as g^\markup {
\musicglyph #"scripts.segno" }
, see Formatting text.
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B.7 Note head styles
The following styles may be used for note heads.
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[ < Note head styles ] | [ Up : Notation manual tables ] | [ Font > ] |
B.8 Text markup commands
The following commands can all be used inside \markup { }
.
B.8.1 Font | ||
B.8.2 Align | ||
B.8.3 Graphic | ||
B.8.4 Music | ||
B.8.5 Instrument Specific Markup | ||
B.8.6 Other |
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[ < Text markup commands ] | [ Up : Text markup commands ] | [ Align > ] |
B.8.1 Font
-
\abs-fontsize
size (number) arg (markup) -
Use size as the absolute font size to display arg. Adjusts
baseline-skip
andword-space
accordingly.\markup { default text font size \hspace #2 \abs-fontsize #16 { text font size 16 } \hspace #2 \abs-fontsize #12 { text font size 12 } }
-
\bold
arg (markup) -
Switch to bold font-series.
\markup { default \hspace #2 \bold bold }
-
\box
arg (markup) -
Draw a box round arg. Looks at
thickness
,box-padding
andfont-size
properties to determine line thickness and padding around the markup.\markup { \override #'(box-padding . 0.5) \box \line { V. S. } }
Used properties:
-
box-padding
(0.2) -
font-size
(0) -
thickness
(1)
-
-
\caps
arg (markup) -
Copy of the
\smallCaps
command.\markup { default \hspace #2 \caps { Text in small caps } }
-
\dynamic
arg (markup) -
Use the dynamic font. This font only contains s, f, m, z, p, and r. When producing phrases, like ‘più f’, the normal words (like ‘più’) should be done in a different font. The recommended font for this is bold and italic.
\markup { \dynamic { sfzp } }
-
\finger
arg (markup) -
Set arg as small numbers.
\markup { \finger { 1 2 3 4 5 } }
-
\fontCaps
arg (markup) -
Set
font-shape
tocaps
Note:
\fontCaps
requires the installation and selection of fonts which support thecaps
font shape. -
\fontsize
increment (number) arg (markup) -
Add increment to the font-size. Adjusts
baseline-skip
accordingly.\markup { default \hspace #2 \fontsize #-1.5 smaller }
Used properties:
-
baseline-skip
(2) -
word-space
(1) -
font-size
(0)
-
-
\huge
arg (markup) -
Set font size to +2.
\markup { default \hspace #2 \huge huge }
-
\italic
arg (markup) -
Use italic
font-shape
for arg.\markup { default \hspace #2 \italic italic }
-
\large
arg (markup) -
Set font size to +1.
\markup { default \hspace #2 \large large }
-
\larger
arg (markup) -
Increase the font size relative to the current setting.
\markup { default \hspace #2 \larger larger }
-
\magnify
sz (number) arg (markup) -
Set the font magnification for its argument. In the following example, the middle A is 10% larger:
A \magnify #1.1 { A } A
Note: Magnification only works if a font name is explicitly selected. Use
\fontsize
otherwise.\markup { default \hspace #2 \magnify #1.5 { 50% larger } }
-
\medium
arg (markup) -
Switch to medium font-series (in contrast to bold).
\markup { \bold { some bold text \hspace #2 \medium { medium font series } \hspace #2 bold again } }
-
\normal-size-sub
arg (markup) -
Set arg in subscript with a normal font size.
\markup { default \normal-size-sub { subscript in standard size } }
Used properties:
-
baseline-skip
-
-
\normal-size-super
arg (markup) -
Set arg in superscript with a normal font size.
\markup { default \normal-size-super { superscript in standard size } }
Used properties:
-
baseline-skip
-
-
\normal-text
arg (markup) -
Set all font related properties (except the size) to get the default normal text font, no matter what font was used earlier.
\markup { \huge \bold \sans \caps { Some text with font overrides \hspace #2 \normal-text { Default text, same font-size } \hspace #2 More text as before } }
-
\normalsize
arg (markup) -
Set font size to default.
\markup { \teeny { this is very small \hspace #2 \normalsize { normal size } \hspace #2 teeny again } }
-
\number
arg (markup) -
Set font family to
number
, which yields the font used for time signatures and fingerings. This font contains numbers and some punctuation; it has no letters.\markup { \number { 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 . , } }
-
\roman
arg (markup) -
Set font family to
roman
.\markup { \sans \bold { sans serif, bold \hspace #2 \roman { text in roman font family } \hspace #2 return to sans } }
-
\sans
arg (markup) -
Switch to the sans serif font family.
\markup { default \hspace #2 \sans { sans serif } }
-
\simple
str (string) -
A simple text string;
\markup { foo }
is equivalent with\markup { \simple #"foo" }
.Note: for creating standard text markup or defining new markup commands, the use of
\simple
is unnecessary.\markup { \simple #"simple" \simple #"text" \simple #"strings" }
-
\small
arg (markup) -
Set font size to -1.
\markup { default \hspace #2 \small small }
-
\smallCaps
arg (markup) -
Emit arg as small caps.
Note:
\smallCaps
does not support accented characters.\markup { default \hspace #2 \smallCaps { Text in small caps } }
-
\smaller
arg (markup) -
Decrease the font size relative to the current setting.
\markup { \fontsize #3.5 { some large text \hspace #2 \smaller { a bit smaller } \hspace #2 more large text } }
-
\sub
arg (markup) -
Set arg in subscript.
\markup { \concat { H \sub { 2 } O } }
Used properties:
-
baseline-skip
-
font-size
(0)
-
-
\super
arg (markup) -
Set arg in superscript.
\markup { E = \concat { mc \super 2 } }
Used properties:
-
baseline-skip
-
font-size
(0)
-
-
\teeny
arg (markup) -
Set font size to -3.
\markup { default \hspace #2 \teeny teeny }
-
\text
arg (markup) -
Use a text font instead of music symbol or music alphabet font.
\markup { \number { 1, 2, \text { three, four, } 5 } }
-
\tiny
arg (markup) -
Set font size to -2.
\markup { default \hspace #2 \tiny tiny }
-
\typewriter
arg (markup) -
Use
font-family
typewriter for arg.\markup { default \hspace #2 \typewriter typewriter }
-
\underline
arg (markup) -
Underline arg. Looks at
thickness
to determine line thickness and y-offset.\markup { default \hspace #2 \override #'(thickness . 2) \underline { underline } }
Used properties:
-
thickness
(1)
-
-
\upright
arg (markup) -
Set
font-shape
toupright
. This is the opposite ofitalic
.\markup { \italic { italic text \hspace #2 \upright { upright text } \hspace #2 italic again } }
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[ < Font ] | [ Up : Text markup commands ] | [ Graphic > ] |
B.8.2 Align
-
\center-align
arg (markup) -
Align
arg
to its X center.\markup { \column { one \center-align two three } }
-
\center-column
args (list of markups) -
Put
args
in a centered column.\markup { \center-column { one two three } }
Used properties:
-
baseline-skip
-
-
\column
args (list of markups) -
Stack the markups in args vertically. The property
baseline-skip
determines the space between markups in args.\markup { \column { one two three } }
Used properties:
-
baseline-skip
-
-
\combine
arg1 (markup) arg2 (markup) -
Print two markups on top of each other.
Note:
\combine
cannot take a list of markups enclosed in curly braces as an argument; the follow example will not compile:\combine { a list }
\markup { \fontsize #5 \override #'(thickness . 2) \combine \draw-line #'(0 . 4) \arrow-head #Y #DOWN ##f }
-
\concat
args (list of markups) -
Concatenate args in a horizontal line, without spaces in between. Strings and simple markups are concatenated on the input level, allowing ligatures. For example,
\concat { "f" \simple #"i" }
is equivalent to"fi"
.\markup { \concat { one two three } }
-
\dir-column
args (list of markups) -
Make a column of args, going up or down, depending on the setting of the
direction
layout property.\markup { \override #`(direction . ,UP) { \dir-column { going up } } \hspace #1 \dir-column { going down } \hspace #1 \override #'(direction . 1) { \dir-column { going up } } }
Used properties:
-
baseline-skip
-
direction
-
-
\fill-line
args (list of markups) -
Put markups in a horizontal line of width line-width. The markups are spaced or flushed to fill the entire line. If there are no arguments, return an empty stencil.
\markup { \column { \fill-line { Words evenly spaced across the page } \null \fill-line { \line { Text markups } \line { \italic { evenly spaced } } \line { across the page } } } }
Used properties:
-
line-width
(#f) -
word-space
(1) -
text-direction
(1)
-
-
\general-align
axis (integer) dir (number) arg (markup) -
Align arg in axis direction to the dir side.
\markup { \column { one \general-align #X #LEFT two three \null one \general-align #X #CENTER two three \null \line { one \general-align #Y #UP two three } \null \line { one \general-align #Y #3.2 two three } } }
-
\halign
dir (number) arg (markup) -
Set horizontal alignment. If dir is
-1
, then it is left-aligned, while+1
is right. Values in between interpolate alignment accordingly.\markup { \column { one \halign #LEFT two three \null one \halign #CENTER two three \null one \halign #RIGHT two three \null one \halign #-5 two three } }
-
\hcenter-in
length (number) arg (markup) -
Center arg horizontally within a box of extending length/2 to the left and right.
\new StaffGroup << \new Staff { \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup { \hcenter-in #12 Oboe } c''1 } \new Staff { \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup { \hcenter-in #12 Bassoon } \clef tenor c'1 } >>
-
\hspace
amount (number) -
Create an invisible object taking up horizontal space amount.
\markup { one \hspace #2 two \hspace #8 three }
-
\justify-field
symbol (symbol) -
Justify the data which has been assigned to symbol.
\header { title = "My title" description = "Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat." } \paper { bookTitleMarkup = \markup { \column { \fill-line { \fromproperty #'header:title } \null \justify-field #'header:description } } } \markup { \null }
-
\justify
args (list of markups) -
Like
\wordwrap
, but with lines stretched to justify the margins. Use\override #'(line-width . X)
to set the line width; X is the number of staff spaces.\markup { \justify { Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. } }
Used properties:
-
text-direction
(1) -
word-space
-
line-width
(#f) -
baseline-skip
-
-
\justify-string
arg (string) -
Justify a string. Paragraphs may be separated with double newlines
\markup { \override #'(line-width . 40) \justify-string #"Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum" }
Used properties:
-
text-direction
(1) -
word-space
-
line-width
-
baseline-skip
-
-
\left-align
arg (markup) -
Align arg on its left edge.
\markup { \column { one \left-align two three } }
-
\left-column
args (list of markups) -
Put
args
in a left-aligned column.\markup { \left-column { one two three } }
Used properties:
-
baseline-skip
-
-
\line
args (list of markups) -
Put args in a horizontal line. The property
word-space
determines the space between markups in args.\markup { \line { one two three } }
Used properties:
-
text-direction
(1) -
word-space
-
-
\lower
amount (number) arg (markup) -
Lower arg by the distance amount. A negative amount indicates raising; see also
\raise
.\markup { one \lower #3 two three }
-
\pad-around
amount (number) arg (markup) -
Add padding amount all around arg.
\markup { \box { default } \hspace #2 \box { \pad-around #0.5 { padded } } }
-
\pad-markup
amount (number) arg (markup) -
Add space around a markup object.
\markup { \box { default } \hspace #2 \box { \pad-markup #1 { padded } } }
-
\pad-to-box
x-ext (pair of numbers) y-ext (pair of numbers) arg (markup) -
Make arg take at least x-ext, y-ext space.
\markup { \box { default } \hspace #4 \box { \pad-to-box #'(0 . 10) #'(0 . 3) { padded } } }
-
\pad-x
amount (number) arg (markup) -
Add padding amount around arg in the X direction.
\markup { \box { default } \hspace #4 \box { \pad-x #2 { padded } } }
-
\put-adjacent
axis (integer) dir (direction) arg1 (markup) arg2 (markup) -
Put arg2 next to arg1, without moving arg1.
-
\raise
amount (number) arg (markup) -
Raise arg by the distance amount. A negative amount indicates lowering, see also
\lower
.The argument to
\raise
is the vertical displacement amount, measured in (global) staff spaces.\raise
and\super
raise objects in relation to their surrounding markups.If the text object itself is positioned above or below the staff, then
\raise
cannot be used to move it, since the mechanism that positions it next to the staff cancels any shift made with\raise
. For vertical positioning, use thepadding
and/orextra-offset
properties.\markup { C \small \bold \raise #1.0 9/7+ }
-
\right-align
arg (markup) -
Align arg on its right edge.
\markup { \column { one \right-align two three } }
-
\right-column
args (list of markups) -
Put
args
in a right-aligned column.\markup { \right-column { one two three } }
Used properties:
-
baseline-skip
-
-
\rotate
ang (number) arg (markup) -
Rotate object with ang degrees around its center.
\markup { default \hspace #2 \rotate #45 \line { rotated 45° } }
-
\translate
offset (pair of numbers) arg (markup) -
Translate arg relative to its surroundings. offset is a pair of numbers representing the displacement in the X and Y axis.
\markup { * \translate #'(2 . 3) \line { translated two spaces right, three up } }
-
\translate-scaled
offset (pair of numbers) arg (markup) -
Translate arg by offset, scaling the offset by the
font-size
.\markup { \fontsize #5 { * \translate #'(2 . 3) translate \hspace #2 * \translate-scaled #'(2 . 3) translate-scaled } }
Used properties:
-
font-size
(0)
-
-
\vcenter
arg (markup) -
Align
arg
to its Y center.\markup { one \vcenter two three }
-
\wordwrap-field
symbol (symbol) -
Wordwrap the data which has been assigned to symbol.
\header { title = "My title" description = "Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat." } \paper { bookTitleMarkup = \markup { \column { \fill-line { \fromproperty #'header:title } \null \wordwrap-field #'header:descr } } } \markup { \null }
-
\wordwrap
args (list of markups) -
Simple wordwrap. Use
\override #'(line-width . X)
to set the line width, where X is the number of staff spaces.\markup { \wordwrap { Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. } }
Used properties:
-
text-direction
(1) -
word-space
-
line-width
(#f) -
baseline-skip
-
-
\wordwrap-string
arg (string) -
Wordwrap a string. Paragraphs may be separated with double newlines.
\markup { \override #'(line-width . 40) \wordwrap-string #"Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum" }
Used properties:
-
text-direction
(1) -
word-space
-
line-width
-
baseline-skip
-
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B.8.3 Graphic
-
\arrow-head
axis (integer) dir (direction) filled (boolean) -
Produce an arrow head in specified direction and axis. Use the filled head if filled is specified.
\markup { \fontsize #5 { \general-align #Y #DOWN { \arrow-head #Y #UP ##t \arrow-head #Y #DOWN ##f \hspace #2 \arrow-head #X #RIGHT ##f \arrow-head #X #LEFT ##f } } }
-
\beam
width (number) slope (number) thickness (number) -
Create a beam with the specified parameters.
\markup { \beam #5 #1 #2 }
-
\bracket
arg (markup) -
Draw vertical brackets around arg.
\markup { \bracket { \note #"2." #UP } }
-
\circle
arg (markup) -
Draw a circle around arg. Use
thickness
,circle-padding
andfont-size
properties to determine line thickness and padding around the markup.\markup { \circle { Hi } }
Used properties:
-
circle-padding
(0.2) -
font-size
(0) -
thickness
(1)
-
-
\draw-circle
radius (number) thickness (number) filled (boolean) -
A circle of radius radius and thickness thickness, optionally filled.
\markup { \draw-circle #2 #0.5 ##f \hspace #2 \draw-circle #2 #0 ##t }
-
\draw-line
dest (pair of numbers) -
A simple line.
\markup { \draw-line #'(4 . 4) \override #'(thickness . 5) \draw-line #'(-3 . 0) }
Used properties:
-
thickness
(1)
-
-
\epsfile
axis (number) size (number) file-name (string) -
Inline an EPS image. The image is scaled along axis to size.
\markup { \general-align #Y #DOWN { \epsfile #X #20 #"context-example.eps" \epsfile #Y #20 #"context-example.eps" } }
-
\filled-box
xext (pair of numbers) yext (pair of numbers) blot (number) -
Draw a box with rounded corners of dimensions xext and yext. For example,
\filled-box #'(-.3 . 1.8) #'(-.3 . 1.8) #0
creates a box extending horizontally from -0.3 to 1.8 and vertically from -0.3 up to 1.8, with corners formed from a circle of diameter 0 (i.e., sharp corners).
\markup { \filled-box #'(0 . 4) #'(0 . 4) #0 \filled-box #'(0 . 2) #'(-4 . 2) #0.4 \filled-box #'(1 . 8) #'(0 . 7) #0.2 \with-color #white \filled-box #'(-4.5 . -2.5) #'(3.5 . 5.5) #0.7 }
-
\hbracket
arg (markup) -
Draw horizontal brackets around arg.
\markup { \hbracket { \line { one two three } } }
-
\postscript
str (string) -
This inserts str directly into the output as a PostScript command string.
eyeglassesps = #" 0.15 setlinewidth -0.9 0 translate 1.1 1.1 scale 1.2 0.7 moveto 0.7 0.7 0.5 0 361 arc stroke 2.20 0.70 0.50 0 361 arc stroke 1.45 0.85 0.30 0 180 arc stroke 0.20 0.70 moveto 0.80 2.00 lineto 0.92 2.26 1.30 2.40 1.15 1.70 curveto stroke 2.70 0.70 moveto 3.30 2.00 lineto 3.42 2.26 3.80 2.40 3.65 1.70 curveto stroke" eyeglasses = \markup { \with-dimensions #'(0 . 4.4) #'(0 . 2.5) \postscript #eyeglassesps } \relative c'' { c2^\eyeglasses a2_\eyeglasses }
-
\rounded-box
arg (markup) -
Draw a box with rounded corners around arg. Looks at
thickness
,box-padding
andfont-size
properties to determine line thickness and padding around the markup; thecorner-radius
property makes it possible to define another shape for the corners (default is 1).c4^\markup { \rounded-box { Overtura } } c,8. c16 c4 r
Used properties:
-
box-padding
(0.5) -
font-size
(0) -
corner-radius
(1) -
thickness
(1)
-
-
\triangle
filled (boolean) -
A triangle, either filled or empty.
\markup { \triangle ##t \hspace #2 \triangle ##f }
Used properties:
-
baseline-skip
(2) -
font-size
(0) -
thickness
(0.1)
-
-
\with-url
url (string) arg (markup) -
Add a link to URL url around arg. This only works in the PDF backend.
\markup { \with-url #"http://lilypond.org/web/" { LilyPond ... \italic { music notation for everyone } } }
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B.8.4 Music
-
\doubleflat
-
Draw a double flat symbol.
\markup { \doubleflat }
-
\doublesharp
-
Draw a double sharp symbol.
\markup { \doublesharp }
-
\flat
-
Draw a flat symbol.
\markup { \flat }
-
\musicglyph
glyph-name (string) -
glyph-name is converted to a musical symbol; for example,
\musicglyph #"accidentals.natural"
selects the natural sign from the music font. See The Feta font for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.\markup { \musicglyph #"f" \musicglyph #"rests.2" \musicglyph #"clefs.G_change" }
-
\natural
-
Draw a natural symbol.
\markup { \natural }
-
\note-by-number
log (number) dot-count (number) dir (number) -
Construct a note symbol, with stem. By using fractional values for dir, longer or shorter stems can be obtained.
\markup { \note-by-number #3 #0 #DOWN \hspace #2 \note-by-number #1 #2 #0.8 }
Used properties:
-
style
(’()) -
font-size
(0)
-
-
\note
duration (string) dir (number) -
This produces a note with a stem pointing in dir direction, with the duration for the note head type and augmentation dots. For example,
\note #"4." #-0.75
creates a dotted quarter note, with a shortened down stem.\markup { \override #'(style . cross) { \note #"4.." #UP } \hspace #2 \note #"breve" #0 }
Used properties:
-
style
(’()) -
font-size
(0)
-
-
\score
score (unknown) -
Inline an image of music.
\markup { \score { \new PianoStaff << \new Staff \relative c' { \key f \major \time 3/4 \mark \markup { Allegro } f2\p( a4) c2( a4) bes2( g'4) f8( e) e4 r } \new Staff \relative c { \clef bass \key f \major \time 3/4 f8( a c a c a f c' es c es c) f,( bes d bes d bes) f( g bes g bes g) } >> \layout { indent = 0.0\cm \context { \Score \override RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(time-signature key-signature) \override RehearsalMark #'self-alignment-X = #LEFT } \context { \Staff \override TimeSignature #'break-align-anchor-alignment = #LEFT } } } }
-
\semiflat
-
Draw a semiflat symbol.
\markup { \semiflat }
-
\semisharp
-
Draw a semisharp symbol.
\markup { \semisharp }
-
\sesquiflat
-
Draw a 3/2 flat symbol.
\markup { \sesquiflat }
-
\sesquisharp
-
Draw a 3/2 sharp symbol.
\markup { \sesquisharp }
-
\sharp
-
Draw a sharp symbol.
\markup { \sharp }
-
\tied-lyric
str (string) -
Like simple-markup, but use tie characters for ‘~’ tilde symbols.
\markup { \tied-lyric #"Lasciate~i monti" }
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B.8.5 Instrument Specific Markup
-
\fret-diagram
definition-string (string) -
Make a (guitar) fret diagram. For example, say
\markup \fret-diagram #"s:0.75;6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-2;"
for fret spacing 3/4 of staff space, D chord diagram
Syntax rules for definition-string:
- - Diagram items are separated by semicolons.
- -
Possible items:
-
s:
number – Set the fret spacing of the diagram (in staff spaces). Default: 1. -
t:
number – Set the line thickness (in staff spaces). Default: 0.05. -
h:
number – Set the height of the diagram in frets. Default: 4. -
w:
number – Set the width of the diagram in strings. Default: 6. -
f:
number – Set fingering label type (0 = none, 1 = in circle on string, 2 = below string). Default: 0. -
d:
number – Set radius of dot, in terms of fret spacing. Default: 0.25. -
p:
number – Set the position of the dot in the fret space. 0.5 is centered; 1 is on lower fret bar, 0 is on upper fret bar. Default: 0.6. -
c:
string1-
string2-
fret – Include a barre mark from string1 to string2 on fret. -
string
-
fret – Place a dot on string at fret. If fret is ‘o’, string is identified as open. If fret is ‘x’, string is identified as muted. -
string
-
fret-
fingering – Place a dot on string at fret, and label with fingering as defined by thef:
code.
-
- - Note: There is no limit to the number of fret indications per string.
Used properties:
-
thickness
(0.5) -
fret-diagram-details
-
size
(1.0) -
align-dir
(-0.4)
-
\fret-diagram-terse
definition-string (string) -
Make a fret diagram markup using terse string-based syntax.
Here is an example
\markup \fret-diagram-terse #"x;x;o;2;3;2;"
for a D chord diagram.
Syntax rules for definition-string:
- Strings are terminated by semicolons; the number of semicolons is the number of strings in the diagram.
- Mute strings are indicated by ‘x’.
- Open strings are indicated by ‘o’.
- A number indicates a fret indication at that fret.
- If there are multiple fret indicators desired on a string, they should be separated by spaces.
-
Fingerings are given by following the fret number with a
-
, followed by the finger indicator, e.g. ‘3-2’ for playing the third fret with the second finger. -
Where a barre indicator is desired, follow the fret (or fingering) symbol
with
-(
to start a barre and-)
to end the barre.
Used properties:
-
thickness
(0.5) -
fret-diagram-details
-
size
(1.0) -
align-dir
(-0.4)
-
\fret-diagram-verbose
marking-list (pair) -
Make a fret diagram containing the symbols indicated in marking-list.
For example,
\markup \fret-diagram-verbose #'((mute 6) (mute 5) (open 4) (place-fret 3 2) (place-fret 2 3) (place-fret 1 2))
produces a standard D chord diagram without fingering indications.
Possible elements in marking-list:
-
(mute string-number)
Place a small ‘x’ at the top of string string-number.
-
(open string-number)
Place a small ‘o’ at the top of string string-number.
-
(barre start-string end-string fret-number)
Place a barre indicator (much like a tie) from string start-string to string end-string at fret fret-number.
-
(capo fret-number)
Place a capo indicator (a large solid bar) across the entire fretboard at fret location fret-number. Also, set fret fret-number to be the lowest fret on the fret diagram.
-
(place-fret string-number fret-number finger-value)
Place a fret playing indication on string string-number at fret fret-number with an optional fingering label finger-value. By default, the fret playing indicator is a solid dot. This can be changed by setting the value of the variable dot-color. If the finger part of the
place-fret
element is present, finger-value will be displayed according to the setting of the variable finger-code. There is no limit to the number of fret indications per string.
Used properties:
-
thickness
(0.5) -
fret-diagram-details
-
size
(1.0) -
align-dir
(-0.4)
-
-
\harp-pedal
definition-string (string) -
Make a harp pedal diagram.
Possible elements in definition-string:
-
^
pedal is up
-
-
pedal is neutral
-
v
pedal is down
-
|
vertical divider line
-
o
the following pedal should be circled (indicating a change)
The function also checks if the string has the typical form of three pedals, then the divider and then the remaining four pedals. If not it prints out a warning. However, in any case, it will also print each symbol in the order as given. This means you can place the divider (even multiple dividers) anywhere you want, but you’ll have to live with the warnings.
The appearance of the diagram can be tweaked inter alia using the size property of the TextScript grob (
\override Voice.TextScript #'size = #0.3
) for the overall, the thickness property (\override Voice.TextScript #'thickness = #3
) for the line thickness of the horizontal line and the divider. The remaining configuration (box sizes, offsets and spaces) is done by the harp-pedal-details list of properties (\override Voice.TextScript #'harp-pedal-details #'box-width = #1
). It contains the following settings:box-offset
(vertical shift of the box center for up/down pedals),box-width
,box-height
,space-before-divider
(the spacing between two boxes before the divider) andspace-after-divider
(box spacing after the divider).\markup \harp-pedal #"^-v|--ov^"
Used properties:
-
thickness
(0.5) -
harp-pedal-details
-
size
(1.0)
-
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B.8.6 Other
-
\backslashed-digit
num (integer) -
A feta number, with backslash. This is for use in the context of figured bass notation.
\markup { \backslashed-digit #5 \hspace #2 \override #'(thickness . 3) \backslashed-digit #7 }
Used properties:
-
thickness
(1.6) -
font-size
(0)
-
-
\char
num (integer) -
Produce a single character. Characters encoded in hexadecimal format require the prefix
#x
.\markup { \char #65 \char ##x00a9 }
-
\fraction
arg1 (markup) arg2 (markup) -
Make a fraction of two markups.
\markup { π ≈ \fraction 355 113 }
Used properties:
-
font-size
(0)
-
-
\fromproperty
symbol (symbol) -
Read the symbol from property settings, and produce a stencil from the markup contained within. If symbol is not defined, it returns an empty markup.
\header { myTitle = "myTitle" title = \markup { from \italic \fromproperty #'header:myTitle } } \markup { \null }
-
\lookup
glyph-name (string) -
Lookup a glyph by name.
\markup { \override #'(font-encoding . fetaBraces) { \lookup #"brace200" \hspace #2 \rotate #180 \lookup #"brace180" } }
-
\markalphabet
num (integer) -
Make a markup letter for num. The letters start with A to Z and continue with double letters.
\markup { \markalphabet #8 \hspace #2 \markalphabet #26 }
-
\markletter
num (integer) -
Make a markup letter for num. The letters start with A to Z (skipping letter I), and continue with double letters.
\markup { \markletter #8 \hspace #2 \markletter #26 }
-
\null
-
An empty markup with extents of a single point.
\markup { \null }
-
\on-the-fly
procedure (symbol) arg (markup) -
Apply the procedure markup command to arg. procedure should take a single argument.
-
\override
new-prop (pair) arg (markup) -
Add the argument new-prop to the property list. Properties may be any property supported by font-interface, text-interface and instrument-specific-markup-interface.
\markup { \line { \column { default baseline-skip } \hspace #2 \override #'(baseline-skip . 4) { \column { increased baseline-skip } } } }
-
\page-ref
label (symbol) gauge (markup) default (markup) -
Reference to a page number. label is the label set on the referenced page (using the
\label
command), gauge a markup used to estimate the maximum width of the page number, and default the value to display when label is not found. -
\slashed-digit
num (integer) -
A feta number, with slash. This is for use in the context of figured bass notation.
\markup { \slashed-digit #5 \hspace #2 \override #'(thickness . 3) \slashed-digit #7 }
Used properties:
-
thickness
(1.6) -
font-size
(0)
-
-
\stencil
stil (unknown) -
Use a stencil as markup.
\markup { \stencil #(make-circle-stencil 2 0 #t) }
-
\strut
-
Create a box of the same height as the space in the current font.
-
\transparent
arg (markup) -
Make arg transparent.
\markup { \transparent { invisible text } }
-
\verbatim-file
name (string) -
Read the contents of file name, and include it verbatim.
\markup { \verbatim-file #"simple.ly" }
-
\whiteout
arg (markup) -
Provide a white background for arg.
\markup { \combine \filled-box #'(-1 . 10) #'(-3 . 4) #1 \whiteout whiteout }
-
\with-color
color (list) arg (markup) -
Draw arg in color specified by color.
\markup { \with-color #red red \hspace #2 \with-color #green green \hspace #2 \with-color #blue blue }
-
\with-dimensions
x (pair of numbers) y (pair of numbers) arg (markup) -
Set the dimensions of arg to x and y.
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B.9 Text markup list commands
The following commands can all be used with \markuplines
.
-
\column-lines
args (list of markups) -
Like
\column
, but return a list of lines instead of a single markup.baseline-skip
determines the space between each markup in args.Used properties:
-
baseline-skip
-
-
\justified-lines
args (list of markups) -
Like
\justify
, but return a list of lines instead of a single markup. Use\override-lines #'(line-width . X)
to set the line width; X is the number of staff spaces.Used properties:
-
text-direction
(1) -
word-space
-
line-width
(#f) -
baseline-skip
-
-
\override-lines
new-prop (pair) args (list of markups) -
Like
\override
, for markup lists. -
\wordwrap-internal
justify (boolean) args (list of markups) -
Internal markup list command used to define
\justify
and\wordwrap
.Used properties:
-
text-direction
(1) -
word-space
-
line-width
(#f)
-
-
\wordwrap-lines
args (list of markups) -
Like
\wordwrap
, but return a list of lines instead of a single markup. Use\override-lines #'(line-width . X)
to set the line width, where X is the number of staff spaces.Used properties:
-
text-direction
(1) -
word-space
-
line-width
(#f) -
baseline-skip
-
-
\wordwrap-string-internal
justify (boolean) arg (string) -
Internal markup list command used to define
\justify-string
and\wordwrap-string
.Used properties:
-
text-direction
(1) -
word-space
-
line-width
-
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B.10 List of articulations
Here is a chart showing all scripts available,
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B.11 Percussion notes
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B.12 All context properties
-
aDueText
(markup) Text to print at a unisono passage.
-
alignAboveContext
(string) Where to insert newly created context in vertiical alignment.
-
alignBassFigureAccidentals
(boolean) If true, then the accidentals are aligned in bass figure context.
-
alignBelowContext
(string) Where to insert newly created context in vertiical alignment.
-
associatedVoice
(string) Name of the
Voice
that has the melody for thisLyrics
line.-
autoAccidentals
(list) List of different ways to typeset an accidental.
For determining when to print an accidental, several different rules are tried. The rule that gives the highest number of accidentals is used.
Each entry in the list is either a symbol or a procedure.
- symbol
The symbol is the name of the context in which the following rules are to be applied. For example, if context is Score then all staves share accidentals, and if context is Staff then all voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
- procedure
The procedure represents an accidental rule to be applied to the previously specified context.
The procedure takes the following arguments:
-
context
The current context to which the rule should be applied.
-
pitch
The pitch of the note to be evaluated.
-
barnum
The current bar number.
-
measurepos
The current measure position.
The procedure returns a pair of booleans. The first states whether an extra natural should be added. The second states whether an accidental should be printed.
(#t . #f)
does not make sense.-
-
autoBeamCheck
(procedure) A procedure taking three arguments, context, dir [start/stop (-1 or 1)], and test [shortest note in the beam]. A non-
#f
return value starts or stops the auto beam.-
autoBeamSettings
(list) Specifies when automatically generated beams should begin and end. See behavior Setting automatic beam behavior for more information.
-
autoBeaming
(boolean) If set to true then beams are generated automatically.
-
autoCautionaries
(list) List similar to
autoAccidentals
, but it controls cautionary accidentals rather than normal ones. Both lists are tried, and the one giving the most accidentals wins. In case of draw, a normal accidental is typeset.-
automaticBars
(boolean) If set to false then bar lines will not be printed automatically; they must be explicitly created with a
\bar
command. Unlike the\cadenzaOn
keyword, measures are still counted. Bar line generation will resume according to that count if this property is unset.-
barAlways
(boolean) If set to true a bar line is drawn after each note.
-
barCheckSynchronize
(boolean) If true then reset
measurePosition
when finding a bar check.-
barNumberVisibility
(procedure) A Procedure that takes an integer and returns whether the corresponding bar number should be printed.
-
bassFigureFormatFunction
(procedure) A procedure that is called to produce the formatting for a
BassFigure
grob. It takes a list ofBassFigureEvent
s, a context, and the grob to format.-
bassStaffProperties
(list) An alist of property settings to apply for the down staff of
PianoStaff
. Used by\autochange
.-
beatGrouping
(list) A list of beatgroups, e.g., in 5/8 time
'(2 3)
.-
beatLength
(moment) The length of one beat in this time signature.
-
chordChanges
(boolean) Only show changes in chords scheme?
-
chordNameExceptions
(list) An alist of chord exceptions. Contains
(chord . markup)
entries.-
chordNameExceptionsFull
(list) An alist of full chord exceptions. Contains
(chord . markup)
entries.-
chordNameExceptionsPartial
(list) An alist of partial chord exceptions. Contains
(chord . (prefix-markup suffix-markup))
entries.-
chordNameFunction
(procedure) The function that converts lists of pitches to chord names.
-
chordNameSeparator
(markup) The markup object used to separate parts of a chord name.
-
chordNoteNamer
(procedure) A function that converts from a pitch object to a text markup. Used for single pitches.
-
chordPrefixSpacer
(number) The space added between the root symbol and the prefix of a chord name.
-
chordRootNamer
(procedure) A function that converts from a pitch object to a text markup. Used for chords.
-
clefGlyph
(string) Name of the symbol within the music font.
-
clefOctavation
(integer) Add this much extra octavation. Values of 7 and -7 are common.
-
clefPosition
(number) Where should the center of the clef symbol go, measured in half staff spaces from the center of the staff.
-
completionBusy
(boolean) Whether a completion-note head is playing.
-
connectArpeggios
(boolean) If set, connect arpeggios across piano staff.
-
countPercentRepeats
(boolean) If set, produce counters for percent repeats.
-
createKeyOnClefChange
(boolean) Print a key signature whenever the clef is changed.
-
createSpacing
(boolean) Create
StaffSpacing
objects? Should be set for staves.-
crescendoSpanner
(symbol) The type of spanner to be used for crescendi. Available values are ‘hairpin’ and ‘text’. If unset, a hairpin crescendo is used.
-
crescendoText
(markup) The text to print at start of non-hairpin crescendo, i.e., ‘cresc.’.
-
currentBarNumber
(integer) Contains the current barnumber. This property is incremented at every bar line.
-
decrescendoSpanner
(symbol) The type of spanner to be used for decrescendi. Available values are ‘hairpin’ and ‘text’. If unset, a hairpin decrescendo is used.
-
decrescendoText
(markup) The text to print at start of non-hairpin decrescendo, i.e., ‘dim.’.
-
defaultBarType
(string) Set the default type of bar line. See
whichBar
for information on available bar types.This variable is read by Timing_translator at Score level.
-
doubleRepeatType
(string) Set the default bar line for double repeats.
-
doubleSlurs
(boolean) If set, two slurs are created for every slurred note, one above and one below the chord.
-
drumPitchTable
(hash table) A table mapping percussion instruments (symbols) to pitches.
-
drumStyleTable
(hash table) A hash table which maps drums to layout settings. Predefined values: ‘drums-style’, ‘timbales-style’, ‘congas-style’, ‘bongos-style’, and ‘percussion-style’.
The layout style is a hash table, containing the drum-pitches (e.g., the symbol ‘hihat’) as keys, and a list
(notehead-style script vertical-position)
as values.-
explicitClefVisibility
(vector) ‘break-visibility’ function for clef changes.
-
explicitKeySignatureVisibility
(vector) ‘break-visibility’ function for explicit key changes. ‘\override’ of the
break-visibility
property will set the visibility for normal (i.e., at the start of the line) key signatures.-
extendersOverRests
(boolean) Whether to continue extenders as they cross a rest.
-
extraNatural
(boolean) Whether to typeset an extra natural sign before accidentals changing from a non-natural to another non-natural.
-
figuredBassAlterationDirection
(direction) Where to put alterations relative to the main figure.
-
figuredBassCenterContinuations
(boolean) Whether to vertically center pairs of extender lines. This does not work with three or more lines.
-
figuredBassFormatter
(procedure) A routine generating a markup for a bass figure.
-
figuredBassPlusDirection
(direction) Where to put plus signs relative to the main figure.
-
fingeringOrientations
(list) A list of symbols, containing ‘left’, ‘right’, ‘up’ and/or ‘down’. This list determines where fingerings are put relative to the chord being fingered.
-
firstClef
(boolean) If true, create a new clef when starting a staff.
-
followVoice
(boolean) If set, note heads are tracked across staff switches by a thin line.
-
fontSize
(number) The relative size of all grobs in a context.
-
forbidBreak
(boolean) If set to
##t
, prevent a line break at this point.-
forceClef
(boolean) Show clef symbol, even if it has not changed. Only active for the first clef after the property is set, not for the full staff.
-
gridInterval
(moment) Interval for which to generate
GridPoint
s.-
harmonicAccidentals
(boolean) If set, harmonic notes in chords get accidentals.
-
harmonicDots
(boolean) If set, harmonic notes in dotted chords get dots.
-
highStringOne
(boolean) Whether the first string is the string with highest pitch on the instrument. This used by the automatic string selector for tablature notation.
-
ignoreBarChecks
(boolean) Ignore bar checks.
-
ignoreFiguredBassRest
(boolean) Don’t swallow rest events.
-
ignoreMelismata
(boolean) Ignore melismata for this Lyrics line.
-
implicitBassFigures
(list) A list of bass figures that are not printed as numbers, but only as extender lines.
-
implicitTimeSignatureVisibility
(vector) break visibility for the default time signature.
-
instrumentCueName
(markup) The name to print if another instrument is to be taken.
-
instrumentEqualizer
(procedure) A function taking a string (instrument name), and returning a
(min . max)
pair of numbers for the loudness range of the instrument.-
instrumentName
(markup) The name to print left of a staff. The
instrument
property labels the staff in the first system, and theinstr
property labels following lines.-
instrumentTransposition
(pitch) Define the transposition of the instrument. Its value is the pitch that sounds like middle C. This is used to transpose the MIDI output, and
\quote
s.-
internalBarNumber
(integer) Contains the current barnumber. This property is used for internal timekeeping, among others by the
Accidental_engraver
.-
keepAliveInterfaces
(list) A list of symbols, signifying grob interfaces that are worth keeping a staff with
remove-empty
set around for.-
keyAlterationOrder
(list) An alist that defines in what order alterations should be printed. The format is
(step . alter)
, where step is a number from 0 to 6 and alter from -2 (sharp) to 2 (flat).-
keySignature
(list) The current key signature. This is an alist containing
(step . alter)
or((octave . step) . alter)
, where step is a number in the range 0 to 6 and alter a fraction, denoting alteration. For alterations, use symbols, e.g.keySignature = #`((6 . ,FLAT))
.-
lyricMelismaAlignment
(direction) Alignment to use for a melisma syllable.
-
majorSevenSymbol
(markup) How should the major 7th be formatted in a chord name?
-
markFormatter
(procedure) A procedure taking as arguments the context and the rehearsal mark. It should return the formatted mark as a markup object.
-
maximumFretStretch
(number) Don’t allocate frets further than this from specified frets.
-
measureLength
(moment) Length of one measure in the current time signature.
-
measurePosition
(moment) How much of the current measure have we had. This can be set manually to create incomplete measures.
-
melismaBusyProperties
(list) A list of properties (symbols) to determine whether a melisma is playing. Setting this property will influence how lyrics are aligned to notes. For example, if set to
#'(melismaBusy beamMelismaBusy)
, only manual melismata and manual beams are considered. Possible values includemelismaBusy
,slurMelismaBusy
,tieMelismaBusy
, andbeamMelismaBusy
.-
metronomeMarkFormatter
(procedure) How to produce a metronome markup. Called with four arguments: text, duration, count and context.
-
middleCClefPosition
(number) The position of the middle C, as determined only by the clef. This can be calculated by looking at
clefPosition
andclefGlyph
.-
middleCOffset
(number) The offset of middle C from the position given by
middleCClefPosition
This is used for ottava brackets.-
middleCPosition
(number) The place of the middle C, measured in half staff-spaces. Usually determined by looking at
middleCClefPosition
andmiddleCOffset
.-
midiInstrument
(string) Name of the MIDI instrument to use.
-
midiMaximumVolume
(number) Analogous to
midiMinimumVolume
.-
midiMinimumVolume
(number) Set the minimum loudness for MIDI. Ranges from 0 to 1.
-
minimumFret
(number) The tablature auto string-selecting mechanism selects the highest string with a fret at least
minimumFret
.-
minimumPageTurnLength
(moment) Minimum length of a rest for a page turn to be allowed.
-
minimumRepeatLengthForPageTurn
(moment) Minimum length of a repeated section for a page turn to be allowed within that section.
-
noteToFretFunction
(procedure) How to produce a fret diagram. Parameters: A list of note events and a list of tabstring events.
-
ottavation
(markup) If set, the text for an ottava spanner. Changing this creates a new text spanner.
-
output
(unknown) The output produced by a score-level translator during music interpretation.
-
pedalSostenutoStrings
(list) See
pedalSustainStrings
.-
pedalSostenutoStyle
(symbol) See
pedalSustainStyle
.-
pedalSustainStrings
(list) A list of strings to print for sustain-pedal. Format is
(up updown down)
, where each of the three is the string to print when this is done with the pedal.-
pedalSustainStyle
(symbol) A symbol that indicates how to print sustain pedals:
text
,bracket
ormixed
(both).-
pedalUnaCordaStrings
(list) See
pedalSustainStrings
.-
pedalUnaCordaStyle
(symbol) See
pedalSustainStyle
.-
predefinedDiagramTable
(hash table) The hash table of predefined fret diagrams to use in FretBoards.
-
printKeyCancellation
(boolean) Print restoration alterations before a key signature change.
-
printOctaveNames
(boolean) Print octave marks for the
NoteNames
context.-
printPartCombineTexts
(boolean) Set ‘Solo’ and ‘A due’ texts in the part combiner?
-
proportionalNotationDuration
(moment) Global override for shortest-playing duration. This is used for switching on proportional notation.
-
recordEventSequence
(procedure) When
Recording_group_engraver
is in this context, then upon termination of the context, this function is called with current context and a list of music objects. The list of contains entries with start times, music objects and whether they are processed in this context.-
rehearsalMark
(integer) The last rehearsal mark printed.
-
repeatCommands
(list) This property is a list of commands of the form
(list 'volta x)
, where x is a string or#f
.'end-repeat
is also accepted as a command.-
repeatCountVisibility
(procedure) A procedure taking as arguments an integer and context, returning whether the corresponding percent repeat number should be printed when
countPercentRepeats
is set.-
restNumberThreshold
(number) If a multimeasure rest has more measures than this, a number is printed.
-
shapeNoteStyles
(vector) Vector of symbols, listing style for each note head relative to the tonic (qv.) of the scale.
-
shortInstrumentName
(markup) See
instrument
.-
shortVocalName
(markup) Name of a vocal line, short version.
-
skipBars
(boolean) If set to true, then skip the empty bars that are produced by multimeasure notes and rests. These bars will not appear on the printed output. If not set (the default), multimeasure notes and rests expand into their full length, printing the appropriate number of empty bars so that synchronization with other voices is preserved.
{ r1 r1*3 R1*3 \set Score.skipBars= ##t r1*3 R1*3 }
-
skipTypesetting
(boolean) If true, no typesetting is done, speeding up the interpretation phase. Useful for debugging large scores.
-
soloIIText
(markup) The text for the start of a solo for voice ‘two’ when part-combining.
-
soloText
(markup) The text for the start of a solo when part-combining.
-
squashedPosition
(integer) Vertical position of squashing for Pitch_squash_engraver.
-
staffLineLayoutFunction
(procedure) Layout of staff lines,
traditional
, orsemitone
.-
stanza
(markup) Stanza ‘number’ to print before the start of a verse. Use in
Lyrics
context.-
stemLeftBeamCount
(integer) Specify the number of beams to draw on the left side of the next note. Overrides automatic beaming. The value is only used once, and then it is erased.
-
stemRightBeamCount
(integer) See
stemLeftBeamCount
.-
stringNumberOrientations
(list) See
fingeringOrientations
.-
stringOneTopmost
(boolean) Whether the first string is printed on the top line of the tablature.
-
stringTunings
(list) The tablature strings tuning. It is a list of the pitch (in semitones) of each string (starting with the lower one).
-
strokeFingerOrientations
(list) See
fingeringOrientations
.-
subdivideBeams
(boolean) If set, multiple beams will be subdivided at beat positions by only drawing one beam over the beat.
-
suggestAccidentals
(boolean) If set, accidentals are typeset as cautionary suggestions over the note.
-
systemStartDelimiter
(symbol) Which grob to make for the start of the system/staff? Set to
SystemStartBrace
,SystemStartBracket
orSystemStartBar
.-
systemStartDelimiterHierarchy
(pair) A nested list, indicating the nesting of a start delimiters.
-
tablatureFormat
(procedure) A function formatting a tablature note head. Called with three arguments: string number, context and event. It returns the text as a string.
-
tempoHideNote
(boolean) Hide the note=count in tempo marks.
-
tempoText
(markup) Text for tempo marks.
-
tempoUnitCount
(number) Count for specifying tempo.
-
tempoUnitDuration
(duration) Unit for specifying tempo.
-
tempoWholesPerMinute
(moment) The tempo in whole notes per minute.
-
tieWaitForNote
(boolean) If true, tied notes do not have to follow each other directly. This can be used for writing out arpeggios.
-
timeSignatureFraction
(pair of numbers) A pair of numbers, signifying the time signature. For example,
#'(4 . 4)
is a 4/4 time signature.-
timing
(boolean) Keep administration of measure length, position, bar number, etc.? Switch off for cadenzas.
-
tonic
(pitch) The tonic of the current scale.
-
trebleStaffProperties
(list) An alist of property settings to apply for the up staff of
PianoStaff
. Used by\autochange
.-
tremoloFlags
(integer) The number of tremolo flags to add if no number is specified.
-
tupletFullLength
(boolean) If set, the tuplet is printed up to the start of the next note.
-
tupletFullLengthNote
(boolean) If set, end at the next note, otherwise end on the matter (time signatures, etc.) before the note.
-
tupletSpannerDuration
(moment) Normally, a tuplet bracket is as wide as the
\times
expression that gave rise to it. By setting this property, you can make brackets last shorter.{ \set tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4) \times 2/3 { c8 c c c c c } }
-
useBassFigureExtenders
(boolean) Whether to use extender lines for repeated bass figures.
-
verticallySpacedContexts
(list) List of symbols, containing context names whose vertical axis groups should be taken into account for vertical spacing of systems.
-
vocalName
(markup) Name of a vocal line.
-
voltaSpannerDuration
(moment) This specifies the maximum duration to use for the brackets printed for
\alternative
. This can be used to shrink the length of brackets in the situation where one alternative is very large.-
whichBar
(string) This property is read to determine what type of bar line to create.
Example:
\set Staff.whichBar = "|:"
This will create a start-repeat bar in this staff only. Valid values are described in bar-line-interface.
[ << Notation manual tables ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Cheat sheet >> ] | ||
[ < All context properties ] | [ Up : Notation manual tables ] | [ Identifiers > ] |
B.13 Layout properties
-
X-extent
(pair of numbers) Hard coded extent in X direction.
-
X-offset
(number) The horizontal amount that this object is moved relative to its X-parent.
-
Y-extent
(pair of numbers) Hard coded extent in Y direction.
-
Y-offset
(number) The vertical amount that this object is moved relative to its Y-parent.
-
add-stem-support
(boolean) If set, the
Stem
object is included in this script’s support.-
after-line-breaking
(boolean) Dummy property, used to trigger callback for
after-line-breaking
.-
align-dir
(direction) Which side to align?
-1
: left side,0
: around center of width,1
: right side.-
allow-loose-spacing
(boolean) If set, column can be detached from main spacing.
-
allow-span-bar
(boolean) If false, no inter-staff bar line will be created below this bar line.
-
alteration
(number) Alteration numbers for accidental.
-
alteration-alist
(list) List of
(pitch . accidental)
pairs for key signature.-
annotation
(string) Annotate a grob for debug purposes.
-
arpeggio-direction
(direction) If set, put an arrow on the arpeggio squiggly line.
-
arrow-length
(number) Arrow length.
-
arrow-width
(number) Arrow width.
-
auto-knee-gap
(dimension, in staff space) If a gap is found between note heads where a horizontal beam fits that is larger than this number, make a kneed beam.
-
average-spacing-wishes
(boolean) If set, the spacing wishes are averaged over staves.
-
avoid-note-head
(boolean) If set, the stem of a chord does not pass through all note heads, but starts at the last note head.
-
avoid-slur
(symbol) Method of handling slur collisions. Choices are
around
,inside
,outside
. If unset, scripts and slurs ignore each other.around
only moves the script if there is a collision;outside
always moves the script.-
axes
(list) List of axis numbers. In the case of alignment grobs, this should contain only one number.
-
bar-size
(dimension, in staff space) The size of a bar line.
-
base-shortest-duration
(moment) Spacing is based on the shortest notes in a piece. Normally, pieces are spaced as if notes at least as short as this are present.
-
baseline-skip
(dimension, in staff space) Distance between base lines of multiple lines of text.
-
beam-thickness
(dimension, in staff space) Beam thickness, measured in
staff-space
units.-
beam-width
(dimension, in staff space) Width of the tremolo sign.
-
beamed-stem-shorten
(list) How much to shorten beamed stems, when their direction is forced. It is a list, since the value is different depending on the number of flags and beams.
-
beaming
(pair) Pair of number lists. Each number list specifies which beams to make.
0
is the central beam,1
is the next beam toward the note, etc. This information is used to determine how to connect the beaming patterns from stem to stem inside a beam.-
beamlet-default-length
(pair) A pair of numbers. The first number specifies the default length of a beamlet that sticks out of the left hand side of this stem; the second number specifies the default length of the beamlet to the right. The actual length of a beamlet is determined by taking either the default length or the length specified by
beamlet-max-length-proportion
, whichever is smaller.-
beamlet-max-length-proportion
(pair) The maximum length of a beamlet, as a proportion of the distance between two adjacent stems.
-
before-line-breaking
(boolean) Dummy property, used to trigger a callback function.
-
between-cols
(pair) Where to attach a loose column to.
-
bound-details
(list) An alist of properties for determining attachments of spanners to edges.
-
bound-padding
(number) The amount of padding to insert around spanner bounds.
-
bracket-flare
(pair of numbers) A pair of numbers specifying how much edges of brackets should slant outward. Value
0.0
means straight edges.-
bracket-visibility
(boolean or symbol) This controls the visibility of the tuplet bracket. Setting it to false prevents printing of the bracket. Setting the property to
if-no-beam
makes it print only if there is no beam associated with this tuplet bracket.-
break-align-anchor
(number) Grobs aligned to this break-align grob will have their X-offsets shifted by this number. In bar lines, for example, this is used to position grobs relative to the (visual) center of the bar line.
-
break-align-anchor-alignment
(number) Read by
ly:break-aligned-interface::calc-extent-aligned-anchor
for aligning an anchor to a grob’s extent-
break-align-orders
(vector) Defines the order in which prefatory matter (clefs, key signatures) appears. The format is a vector of length 3, where each element is one order for end-of-line, middle of line, and start-of-line, respectively. An order is a list of symbols.
For example, clefs are put after key signatures by setting
\override Score.BreakAlignment #'break-align-orders = #(make-vector 3 '(span-bar breathing-sign staff-bar key clef time-signature))
-
break-align-symbol
(symbol) This key is used for aligning and spacing breakable items.
-
break-align-symbols
(list) A list of symbols that determine which break-aligned grobs to align this to. If the grob selected by the first symbol in the list is invisible due to break-visibility, we will align to the next grob (and so on).
-
break-overshoot
(pair of numbers) How much does a broken spanner stick out of its bounds?
-
break-visibility
(vector) A vector of 3 booleans,
#(end-of-line unbroken begin-of-line)
.#t
means visible,#f
means killed.-
breakable
(boolean) Allow breaks here.
-
c0-position
(integer) An integer indicating the position of middle C.
-
circled-tip
(boolean) Put a circle at start/end of hairpins (al/del niente).
-
clip-edges
(boolean) Allow outward pointing beamlets at the edges of beams?
-
collapse-height
(dimension, in staff space) Minimum height of system start delimiter. If equal or smaller, the bracket/brace/line is removed.
-
color
(list) The color of this grob.
-
common-shortest-duration
(moment) The most common shortest note length. This is used in spacing. Enlarging this sets the score tighter.
-
concaveness
(number) A beam is concave if its inner stems are closer to the beam than the two outside stems. This number is a measure of the closeness of the inner stems. It is used for damping the slope of the beam.
-
connect-to-neighbor
(pair) Pair of booleans, indicating whether this grob looks as a continued break.
-
control-points
(list) List of offsets (number pairs) that form control points for the tie, slur, or bracket shape. For Béziers, this should list the control points of a third-order Bézier curve.
-
damping
(number) Amount of beam slope damping.
-
dash-fraction
(number) Size of the dashes, relative to
dash-period
. Should be between0.0
(no line) and1.0
(continuous line).-
dash-period
(number) The length of one dash together with whitespace. If negative, no line is drawn at all.
-
default-direction
(direction) Direction determined by note head positions.
-
digit-names
(unknown) Names for string finger digits.
-
direction
(direction) If
side-axis
is0
(or#X
), then this property determines whether the object is placed#LEFT
,#CENTER
or#RIGHT
with respect to the other object. Otherwise, it determines whether the object is placed#UP
,#CENTER
or#DOWN
. Numerical values may also be used:#UP
=1
,#DOWN
=-1
,#LEFT
=-1
,#RIGHT
=1
,#CENTER
=0
.-
dot-count
(integer) The number of dots.
-
dot-negative-kern
(number) The space to remove between a dot and a slash in percent repeat glyphs. Larger values bring the two elements closer together.
-
dot-placement-list
(list) List consisting of
(description string-number fret-number finger-number)
entries used to define fret diagrams.-
duration-log
(integer) The 2-log of the note head duration, i.e.,
0
= whole note,1
= half note, etc.-
eccentricity
(number) How asymmetrical to make a slur. Positive means move the center to the right.
-
edge-height
(pair) A pair of numbers specifying the heights of the vertical edges:
(left-height . right-height)
.-
edge-text
(pair) A pair specifying the texts to be set at the edges:
(left-text . right-text)
.-
expand-limit
(integer) Maximum number of measures expanded in church rests.
-
extra-X-extent
(pair of numbers) A grob is enlarged in X dimension by this much.
-
extra-Y-extent
(pair of numbers) A grob is enlarged in Y dimension by this much.
-
extra-dy
(number) Slope glissandi this much extra.
-
extra-offset
(pair of numbers) A pair representing an offset. This offset is added just before outputting the symbol, so the typesetting engine is completely oblivious to it. The values are measured in
staff-space
units of the staff’sStaffSymbol
.-
extra-spacing-height
(pair of numbers) In the horizontal spacing problem, we increase the height of each item by this amount (by adding the ‘car’ to the bottom of the item and adding the ‘cdr’ to the top of the item). In order to make a grob infinitely high (to prevent the horizontal spacing problem from placing any other grobs above or below this grob), set this to
(-inf.0 . +inf.0)
.-
extra-spacing-width
(pair of numbers) In the horizontal spacing problem, we pad each item by this amount (by adding the ‘car’ on the left side of the item and adding the ‘cdr’ on the right side of the item). In order to make a grob take up no horizontal space at all, set this to
(+inf.0 . -inf.0)
.-
flag
(unknown) A function returning the full flag stencil for the
Stem
, which is passed to the function as the only argument. The default ly:stem::calc-stencil function uses theflag-style
property to determine the correct glyph for the flag. By providing your own function, you can create arbitrary flags.-
flag-count
(number) The number of tremolo beams.
-
flag-style
(symbol) A symbol determining what style of flag glyph is typeset on a
Stem
. Valid options include'()
for standard flags,'mensural
and'no-flag
, which switches off the flag.-
font-encoding
(symbol) The font encoding is the broadest category for selecting a font. Currently, only lilypond’s system fonts (Emmentaler and Aybabtu) are using this property. Available values are
fetaMusic
(Emmentaler),fetaBraces
(Aybabtu),fetaNumber
(Emmentaler), andfetaDynamic
(Emmentaler).-
font-family
(symbol) The font family is the broadest category for selecting text fonts. Options include:
sans
,roman
.-
font-name
(string) Specifies a file name (without extension) of the font to load. This setting overrides selection using
font-family
,font-series
andfont-shape
.-
font-series
(symbol) Select the series of a font. Choices include
medium
,bold
,bold-narrow
, etc.-
font-shape
(symbol) Select the shape of a font. Choices include
upright
,italic
,caps
.-
font-size
(number) The font size, compared to the ‘normal’ size.
0
is style-sheet’s normal size,-1
is smaller,+1
is bigger. Each step of 1 is approximately 12% larger; 6 steps are exactly a factor 2 larger. Fractional values are allowed.-
force-hshift
(number) This specifies a manual shift for notes in collisions. The unit is the note head width of the first voice note. This is used by note-collision-interface.
-
fraction
(pair of numbers) Numerator and denominator of a time signature object.
-
french-beaming
(boolean) Use French beaming style for this stem. The stem stops at the innermost beams.
-
fret-diagram-details
(list) An alist of detailed grob properties for fret diagrams. Each alist entry consists of a
(property . value)
pair. The properties which can be included infret-diagram-details
include the following:-
barre-type
– Type of barre indication used. Choices includecurved
,straight
, andnone
. Defaultcurved
. -
capo-thickness
– Thickness of capo indicator, in multiples of fret-space. Default value 0.5. -
dot-color
– Color of dots. Options includeblack
andwhite
. Defaultblack
. -
dot-label-font-mag
– Magnification for font used to label fret dots. Default value 1. -
dot-position
– Location of dot in fret space. Default 0.6 for dots without labels, 0.95-dot-radius
for dots with labels. -
dot-radius
– Radius of dots, in terms of fret spaces. Default value 0.425 for labeled dots, 0.25 for unlabeled dots. -
finger-code
– Code for the type of fingering indication used. Options includenone
,in-dot
, andbelow-string
. Defaultnone
for markup fret diagrams,below-string
forFretBoards
fret diagrams. -
fret-count
– The number of frets. Default 4. -
fret-label-font-mag
– The magnification of the font used to label the lowest fret number. Default 0.5. -
fret-label-vertical-offset
– The offset of the fret label from the center of the fret in direction parallel to strings. Default 0. -
label-dir
– Side to which the fret label is attached.-1
,#LEFT
, or#DOWN
for left or down;1
,#RIGHT
, or#UP
for right or up. Default#RIGHT
. -
mute-string
– Character string to be used to indicate muted string. Default"x"
. -
number-type
– Type of numbers to use in fret label. Choices includeroman-lower
,roman-upper
, andarabic
. Defaultroman-lower
. -
open-string
– Character string to be used to indicate open string. Default"o"
. -
orientation
– Orientation of fret-diagram. Options includenormal
,landscape
, andopposing-landscape
. Defaultnormal
. -
string-count
– The number of strings. Default 6. -
string-label-font-mag
– The magnification of the font used to label fingerings at the string, rather than in the dot. Default value 0.6 fornormal
orientation, 0.5 forlandscape
andopposing-landscape
. -
string-thickness-factor
– Factor for changing thickness of each string in the fret diagram. Thickness of string k is given bythickness
* (1+string-thickness-factor
) ^ (k-1). Default 0. -
top-fret-thickness
– The thickness of the top fret line, as a multiple of the standard thickness. Default value 3. -
xo-font-magnification
– Magnification used for mute and open string indicators. Default value 0.5. -
xo-padding
– Padding for open and mute indicators from top fret. Default value 0.25.
-
-
full-length-padding
(number) How much padding to use at the right side of a full-length tuplet bracket.
-
full-length-to-extent
(boolean) Run to the extent of the column for a full-length tuplet bracket.
-
full-measure-extra-space
(number) Extra space that is allocated at the beginning of a measure with only one note. This property is read from the NonMusicalPaperColumn that begins the measure.
-
full-size-change
(boolean) Don’t make a change clef smaller.
-
gap
(dimension, in staff space) Size of a gap in a variable symbol.
-
gap-count
(integer) Number of gapped beams for tremolo.
-
glyph
(string) A string determining what ‘style’ of glyph is typeset. Valid choices depend on the function that is reading this property.
-
glyph-name-alist
(list) An alist of key-string pairs.
-
grow-direction
(direction) Crescendo or decrescendo?
-
hair-thickness
(number) Thickness of the thin line in a bar line.
-
harp-pedal-details
(list) An alist of detailed grob properties for harp pedal diagrams. Each alist entry consists of a
(property . value)
pair. The properties which can be included in harp-pedal-details include the following:-
box-offset
– Vertical shift of the center of flat/sharp pedal boxes above/below the horizontal line. Default value 0.8. -
box-width
– Width of each pedal box. Default value 0.4. -
box-height
– Height of each pedal box. Default value 1.0. -
space-before-divider
– Space between boxes before the first divider (so that the diagram can be made symmetric). Default value 0.8. -
space-after-divider
– Space between boxes after the first divider. Default value 0.8. -
circle-thickness
– Thickness (in unit of the line-thickness) of the ellipse around circled pedals. Default value 0.5. -
circle-x-padding
– Padding in X direction of the ellipse around circled pedals. Default value 0.15. -
circle-y-padding
– Padding in Y direction of the ellipse around circled pedals. Default value 0.2.
-
-
head-direction
(direction) Are the note heads left or right in a semitie?
-
height
(dimension, in staff space) Height of an object in
staff-space
units.-
height-limit
(dimension, in staff space) Maximum slur height: The longer the slur, the closer it is to this height.
-
horizontal-shift
(integer) An integer that identifies ranking of
NoteColumn
s for horizontal shifting. This is used by note-collision-interface.-
horizontal-skylines
(unknown) Two skylines, one to the left and one to the right of this grob.
-
ignore-collision
(boolean) If set, don’t do note collision resolution on this
NoteColumn
.-
implicit
(boolean) Is this an implicit bass figure?
-
inspect-index
(integer) If debugging is set, set beam and slur configuration to this index, and print the respective scores.
-
inspect-quants
(pair of numbers) If debugging is set, set beam and slur quants to this position, and print the respective scores.
-
keep-fixed-while-stretching
(boolean) A grob with this property set to true is fixed relative to the staff above it when systems are stretched.
-
keep-inside-line
(boolean) If set, this column cannot have objects sticking into the margin.
-
kern
(dimension, in staff space) Amount of extra white space to add. For bar lines, this is the amount of space after a thick line.
-
knee
(boolean) Is this beam kneed?
-
knee-spacing-correction
(number) Factor for the optical correction amount for kneed beams. Set between
0
for no correction and1
for full correction.-
labels
(list) List of labels (symbols) placed on a column
-
layer
(integer) The output layer (a value between 0 and 2): Layers define the order of printing objects. Objects in lower layers are overprinted by objects in higher layers.
-
ledger-line-thickness
(pair of numbers) The thickness of ledger lines. It is the sum of 2 numbers: The first is the factor for line thickness, and the second for staff space. Both contributions are added.
-
left-bound-info
(list) An alist of properties for determining attachments of spanners to edges.
-
left-padding
(dimension, in staff space) The amount of space that is put left to an object (e.g., a group of accidentals).
-
length
(dimension, in staff space) User override for the stem length of unbeamed stems.
-
length-fraction
(number) Multiplier for lengths. Used for determining ledger lines and stem lengths.
-
line-break-penalty
(number) Penalty for a line break at this column. This affects the choices of the line breaker; it avoids a line break at a column with a positive penalty and prefers a line break at a column with a negative penalty.
-
line-break-permission
(symbol) Instructs the line breaker on whether to put a line break at this column. Can be
force
orallow
.-
line-break-system-details
(list) An alist of properties to use if this column is the start of a system.
-
line-count
(integer) The number of staff lines.
-
line-positions
(list) Vertical positions of staff lines.
-
line-thickness
(number) The thickness of the tie or slur contour.
-
long-text
(markup) Text markup. See Formatting text.
-
max-beam-connect
(integer) Maximum number of beams to connect to beams from this stem. Further beams are typeset as beamlets.
-
max-stretch
(number) The maximum amount that this
VerticalAxisGroup
can be vertically stretched (for example, in order to better fill a page).-
measure-count
(integer) The number of measures for a multi-measure rest.
-
measure-length
(moment) Length of a measure. Used in some spacing situations.
-
merge-differently-dotted
(boolean) Merge note heads in collisions, even if they have a different number of dots. This is normal notation for some types of polyphonic music.
merge-differently-dotted
only applies to opposing stem directions (i.e., voice 1 & 2).-
merge-differently-headed
(boolean) Merge note heads in collisions, even if they have different note heads. The smaller of the two heads is rendered invisible. This is used in polyphonic guitar notation. The value of this setting is used by note-collision-interface.
merge-differently-headed
only applies to opposing stem directions (i.e., voice 1 & 2).-
minimum-X-extent
(pair of numbers) Minimum size of an object in X dimension, measured in
staff-space
units.-
minimum-Y-extent
(pair of numbers) Minimum size of an object in Y dimension, measured in
staff-space
units.-
minimum-distance
(dimension, in staff space) Minimum distance between rest and notes or beam.
-
minimum-length
(dimension, in staff space) Try to make a spanner at least this long, normally in the horizontal direction. This requires an appropriate callback for the
springs-and-rods
property. If added to aTie
, this sets the minimum distance between noteheads.-
minimum-length-fraction
(number) Minimum length of ledger line as fraction of note head size.
-
minimum-space
(dimension, in staff space) Minimum distance that the victim should move (after padding).
-
neutral-direction
(direction) Which direction to take in the center of the staff.
-
neutral-position
(number) Position (in half staff spaces) where to flip the direction of custos stem.
-
next
(layout object) Object that is next relation (e.g., the lyric syllable following an extender).
-
no-alignment
(boolean) If set, don’t place this grob in a
VerticalAlignment
; rather, place it using its ownY-offset
callback.-
no-ledgers
(boolean) If set, don’t draw ledger lines on this object.
-
no-stem-extend
(boolean) If set, notes with ledger lines do not get stems extending to the middle staff line.
-
non-default
(boolean) Set for manually specified clefs.
-
non-musical
(boolean) True if the grob belongs to a
NonMusicalPaperColumn
.-
note-names
(vector) Vector of strings containing names for easy-notation note heads.
-
outside-staff-horizontal-padding
(number) By default, an outside-staff-object can be placed so that is it very close to another grob horizontally. If this property is set, the outside-staff-object is raised so that it is not so close to its neighbor.
-
outside-staff-padding
(number) The padding to place between this grob and the staff when spacing according to
outside-staff-priority
.-
outside-staff-priority
(number) If set, the grob is positioned outside the staff in such a way as to avoid all collisions. In case of a potential collision, the grob with the smaller
outside-staff-priority
is closer to the staff.-
packed-spacing
(boolean) If set, the notes are spaced as tightly as possible.
-
padding
(dimension, in staff space) Add this much extra space between objects that are next to each other.
-
padding-pairs
(list) An alist mapping
(name . name)
to distances.-
page-break-penalty
(number) Penalty for page break at this column. This affects the choices of the page breaker; it avoids a page break at a column with a positive penalty and prefers a page break at a column with a negative penalty.
-
page-break-permission
(symbol) Instructs the page breaker on whether to put a page break at this column. Can be
force
orallow
.-
page-turn-penalty
(number) Penalty for a page turn at this column. This affects the choices of the page breaker; it avoids a page turn at a column with a positive penalty and prefers a page turn at a column with a negative penalty.
-
page-turn-permission
(symbol) Instructs the page breaker on whether to put a page turn at this column. Can be
force
orallow
.-
parenthesized
(boolean) Parenthesize this grob.
-
positions
(pair of numbers) Pair of staff coordinates
(left . right)
, where both left and right are instaff-space
units of the current staff. For slurs, this value selects which slur candidate to use; if extreme positions are requested, the closest one is taken.-
prefer-dotted-right
(boolean) For note collisions, prefer to shift dotted up-note to the right, rather than shifting just the dot.
-
ratio
(number) Parameter for slur shape. The higher this number, the quicker the slur attains its
height-limit
.-
remove-empty
(boolean) If set, remove group if it contains no interesting items.
-
remove-first
(boolean) Remove the first staff of an orchestral score?
-
restore-first
(boolean) Print a natural before the accidental.
-
rhythmic-location
(rhythmic location) Where (bar number, measure position) in the score.
-
right-bound-info
(list) An alist of properties for determining attachments of spanners to edges.
-
right-padding
(dimension, in staff space) Space to insert on the right side of an object (e.g., between note and its accidentals).
-
rotation
(list) Number of degrees to rotate this object, and what point to rotate around. For example,
#'(45 0 0)
rotates by 45 degrees around the center of this object.-
same-direction-correction
(number) Optical correction amount for stems that are placed in tight configurations. This amount is used for stems with the same direction to compensate for note head to stem distance.
-
script-priority
(number) A sorting key that determines in what order a script is within a stack of scripts.
-
self-alignment-X
(number) Specify alignment of an object. The value
-1
means left aligned,0
centered, and1
right-aligned in X direction. Other numerical values may also be specified.-
self-alignment-Y
(number) Like
self-alignment-X
but for the Y axis.-
shorten-pair
(pair of numbers) The lengths to shorten a text-spanner on both sides, for example a pedal bracket. Positive values shorten the text-spanner, while negative values lengthen it.
-
shortest-duration-space
(dimension, in staff space) Start with this much space for the shortest duration. This is expressed in
spacing-increment
as unit. See also spacing-spanner-interface.-
shortest-playing-duration
(moment) The duration of the shortest note playing here.
-
shortest-starter-duration
(moment) The duration of the shortest note that starts here.
-
side-axis
(number) If the value is
#X
(or equivalently0
), the object is placed horizontally next to the other object. If the value is#Y
or1
, it is placed vertically.-
side-relative-direction
(direction) Multiply direction of
direction-source
with this to get the direction of this object.-
size
(number) Size of object, relative to standard size.
-
skyline-horizontal-padding
(number) For determining the vertical distance between two staves, it is possible to have a configuration which would result in a tight interleaving of grobs from the top staff and the bottom staff. The larger this parameter is, the farther apart the staves are placed in such a configuration.
-
slash-negative-kern
(number) The space to remove between slashes in percent repeat glyphs. Larger values bring the two elements closer together.
-
slope
(number) The slope of this object.
-
slur-padding
(number) Extra distance between slur and script.
-
space-alist
(list) A table that specifies distances between prefatory items, like clef and time-signature. The format is an alist of spacing tuples:
(break-align-symbol type . distance)
, where type can be the symbolsminimum-space
orextra-space
.-
space-to-barline
(boolean) If set, the distance between a note and the following non-musical column will be measured to the bar line instead of to the beginning of the non-musical column. If there is a clef change followed by a bar line, for example, this means that we will try to space the non-musical column as though the clef is not there.
-
spacing-increment
(number) Add this much space for a doubled duration. Typically, the width of a note head. See also spacing-spanner-interface.
-
springs-and-rods
(boolean) Dummy variable for triggering spacing routines.
-
stacking-dir
(direction) Stack objects in which direction?
-
staff-padding
(dimension, in staff space) Maintain this much space between reference points and the staff. Its effect is to align objects of differing sizes (like the dynamics p and f) on their baselines.
-
staff-position
(number) Vertical position, measured in half staff spaces, counted from the middle line.
-
staff-space
(dimension, in staff space) Amount of space between staff lines, expressed in global
staff-space
.-
stem-attachment
(pair of numbers) An
(x . y)
pair where the stem attaches to the notehead.-
stem-end-position
(number) Where does the stem end (the end is opposite to the support-head)?
-
stem-spacing-correction
(number) Optical correction amount for stems that are placed in tight configurations. For opposite directions, this amount is the correction for two normal sized stems that overlap completely.
-
stemlet-length
(number) How long should be a stem over a rest?
-
stencil
(unknown) The symbol to print.
-
stencils
(list) Multiple stencils, used as intermediate value.
-
strict-grace-spacing
(boolean) If set, main notes are spaced normally, then grace notes are put left of the musical columns fot the main notes.
-
strict-note-spacing
(boolean) If set, unbroken columns with non-musical material (clefs, bar lines, etc.) are not spaced separately, but put before musical columns.
-
stroke-style
(string) Set to
"grace"
to turn stroke through flag on.-
style
(symbol) This setting determines in what style a grob is typeset. Valid choices depend on the
stencil
callback reading this property.-
text
(markup) Text markup. See Formatting text.
-
text-direction
(direction) This controls the ordering of the words. The default
RIGHT
is for roman text. Arabic or Hebrew should useLEFT
.-
thick-thickness
(number) Bar line thickness, measured in
line-thickness
.-
thickness
(number) Line thickness, generally measured in
line-thickness
.-
thin-kern
(number) The space after a hair-line in a bar line.
-
threshold
(pair of numbers) (min . max)
, where min and max are dimensions in staff space.-
tie-configuration
(list) List of
(position . dir)
pairs, indicating the desired tie configuration, where position is the offset from the center of the staff in staff space and dir indicates the direction of the tie (1
=>up,-1
=>down,0
=>center). A non-pair entry in the list causes the corresponding tie to be formatted automatically.-
to-barline
(boolean) If true, the spanner will stop at the bar line just before it would otherwise stop.
-
toward-stem-shift
(number) Amount by which scripts are shifted toward the stem if their direction coincides with the stem direction.
0.0
means keep the default position (centered on the note head),1.0
means centered on the stem. Interpolated values are possible.-
transparent
(boolean) This makes the grob invisible.
-
uniform-stretching
(boolean) If set, items stretch proportionally to their durations. This looks better in complex polyphonic patterns.
-
used
(boolean) If set, this spacing column is kept in the spacing problem.
-
vertical-skylines
(unknown) Two skylines, one above and one below this grob.
-
when
(moment) Global time step associated with this column happen?
-
width
(dimension, in staff space) The width of a grob measured in staff space.
-
word-space
(dimension, in staff space) Space to insert between words in texts.
-
zigzag-length
(dimension, in staff space) The length of the lines of a zigzag, relative to
zigzag-width
. A value of1
gives 60-degree zigzags.-
zigzag-width
(dimension, in staff space) The width of one zigzag squiggle. This number is adjusted slightly so that the glissando line can be constructed from a whole number of squiggles.
[ << Notation manual tables ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ Cheat sheet >> ] | ||
[ < Layout properties ] | [ Up : Notation manual tables ] | [ Scheme functions > ] |
B.14 Identifiers
-
acciaccatura
- music (music) -
Create an acciaccatura from the following music expression
-
addChordShape
- key-symbol (symbol) tuning (pair) shape-definition (unknown) -
Add chord shape shape-definition to the chord-shape-table hash with the key (cons key-symbol tuning).
-
addInstrumentDefinition
- name (string) lst (list) -
Create instrument name with properties list.
-
addQuote
- name (string) music (music) -
Define music as a quotable music expression named name
-
afterGrace
- main (music) grace (music) -
Create grace note(s) after a main music expression.
-
allowPageTurn
-
Allow a page turn. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.
-
applyContext
- proc (procedure) -
Modify context properties with Scheme procedure proc.
-
applyMusic
- func (procedure) music (music) -
Apply procedure func to music.
-
applyOutput
- ctx (symbol) proc (procedure) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
appoggiatura
- music (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
assertBeamQuant
- l (pair) r (pair) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
assertBeamSlope
- comp (procedure) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
autochange
- music (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
balloonGrobText
- grob-name (symbol) offset (pair of numbers) text (markup) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
balloonText
- offset (pair of numbers) text (markup) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
bar
- type (string) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
barNumberCheck
- n (integer) -
Print a warning if the current bar number is not n.
-
bendAfter
- delta (unknown) -
Create a fall or doit of pitch interval delta.
-
breathe
-
Insert a breath mark.
-
clef
- type (string) -
Set the current clef to type.
-
cueDuring
- what (string) dir (direction) main-music (music) -
Insert contents of quote what corresponding to main-music, in a CueVoice oriented by dir.
-
displayLilyMusic
- music (music) -
Display the LilyPond input representation of music to the console.
-
displayMusic
- music (music) -
Display the internal representation of music to the console.
-
endSpanners
- music (music) -
Terminate the next spanner prematurely after exactly one note without the need of a specific end spanner.
-
featherDurations
- factor (moment) argument (music) -
Adjust durations of music in argument by rational factor.
-
grace
- music (music) -
Insert music as grace notes.
-
includePageLayoutFile
-
Include the file <basename>-page-layout.ly. Deprecated as part of two-pass spacing.
-
instrumentSwitch
- name (string) -
Switch instrument to name, which must be predefined with ddInstrumentDefinition.
-
keepWithTag
- tag (symbol) music (music) -
Include only elements of music that are tagged with tag.
-
killCues
- music (music) -
Remove cue notes from music.
-
label
- label (symbol) -
Create label as a bookmarking label
-
makeClusters
- arg (music) -
Display chords in arg as clusters
-
musicMap
- proc (procedure) mus (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
noPageBreak
-
Forbid a page break. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.
-
noPageTurn
-
Forbid a page turn. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.
-
octaveCheck
- pitch-note (music) -
octave check
-
oldaddlyrics
- music (music) lyrics (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
ottava
- octave (number) -
set the octavation
-
overrideProperty
- name (string) property (symbol) value (any type) -
Set property to value in all grobs named name. The name argument is a string of the form
"Context.GrobName"
or"GrobName"
-
pageBreak
-
Force a page break. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.
-
pageTurn
-
Force a page turn between two scores or top-level markups.
-
parallelMusic
- voice-ids (list) music (music) -
Define parallel music sequences, separated by ’|’ (bar check signs), and assign them to the identifiers provided in voice-ids.
voice-ids: a list of music identifiers (symbols containing only letters)
music: a music sequence, containing BarChecks as limiting expressions.
Example:
\parallelMusic #'(A B C) { c c | d d | e e | d d | e e | f f | } <==> A = { c c | d d | } B = { d d | e e | } C = { e e | f f | }
-
parenthesize
- arg (music) -
Tag arg to be parenthesized.
-
partcombine
- part1 (music) part2 (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
pitchedTrill
- main-note (music) secondary-note (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
pointAndClickOff
-
(undocumented; fixme)
-
pointAndClickOn
-
(undocumented; fixme)
-
quoteDuring
- what (string) main-music (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
removeWithTag
- tag (symbol) music (music) -
Remove elements of music that are tagged with tag.
-
resetRelativeOctave
- reference-note (music) -
Set the octave inside a \relative section.
-
rightHandFinger
- finger (number or string) -
Define a StrokeFingerEvent
-
scaleDurations
- fraction (pair of numbers) music (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
scoreTweak
- name (string) -
Include the score tweak, if exists.
-
shiftDurations
- dur (integer) dots (integer) arg (music) -
spacingTweaks
- parameters (list) -
Set the system stretch, by reading the ’system-stretch property of the ‘parameters’ assoc list.
-
storePredefinedDiagram
- chord (music) tuning (pair) diagram-definition (unknown) -
Add predefined fret diagram defined by
diagram-definition
for the chord pitcheschord
and the stringTuningtuning
. -
tag
- tag (symbol) arg (music) -
Add tag to the
tags
property of arg. -
tocItem
- text (markup) -
Add a line to the table of content, using the
tocItemMarkup
paper variable markup -
transposedCueDuring
- what (string) dir (direction) pitch-note (music) main-music (music) -
Insert notes from the part what into a voice called
cue
, using the transposition defined by pitch-note. This happens simultaneously with main-music, which is usually a rest. The argument dir determines whether the cue notes should be notated as a first or second voice. -
transposition
- pitch-note (music) -
Set instrument transposition
-
tweak
- sym (symbol) val (any type) arg (music) -
Add
sym . val
to thetweaks
property of arg. -
unfoldRepeats
- music (music) -
(undocumented; fixme)
-
withMusicProperty
- sym (symbol) val (any type) music (music) -
Set sym to val in music.
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B.15 Scheme functions
- Function: ly:add-listener list disp cl
Add the listener list to the dispatcher disp. Whenever disp hears an event of class cl, it is forwarded to list.
- Function: ly:assoc-get key alist default-value
Return value if key in alist, else
default-value
(or#f
if not specified).
- Function: ly:book-process book-smob default-paper default-layout output
Print book. output is passed to the backend unchanged. For example, it may be a string (for file based outputs) or a socket (for network based output).
- Function: ly:book-process-to-systems book-smob default-paper default-layout output
Print book. output is passed to the backend unchanged. For example, it may be a string (for file based outputs) or a socket (for network based output).
- Function: ly:bracket a iv t p
Make a bracket in direction a. The extent of the bracket is given by iv. The wings protrude by an amount of p, which may be negative. The thickness is given by t.
- Function: ly:chain-assoc-get key achain dfault
Return value for key from a list of alists achain. If no entry is found, return dfault or
#f
if no dfault is specified.
- Function: ly:clear-anonymous-modules
Plug a GUILE 1.6 and 1.7 memory leak by breaking a weak reference pointer cycle explicitly.
- Function: ly:context-events-below context
Return a
stream-distributor
that distributes all events from context and all its subcontexts.
- Function: ly:context-find context name
Find a parent of context that has name or alias name. Return
#f
if not found.
- Function: ly:context-grob-definition context name
Return the definition of name (a symbol) within context as an alist.
- Function: ly:context-id context
Return the ID string of context, i.e., for
\context Voice = one …
return the stringone
.
- Function: ly:context-name context
Return the name of context, i.e., for
\context Voice = one …
return the symbolVoice
.
- Function: ly:context-property-where-defined context name
Return the context above context where name is defined.
- Function: ly:context-pushpop-property context grob eltprop val
Do a single
\override
or\revert
operation in context. The grob definition grob is extended with eltprop (if val is specified) or reverted (if unspecified).
- Function: ly:context-set-property! context name val
Set value of property name in context context to val.
- Function: ly:dimension? d
Return d as a number. Used to distinguish length variables from normal numbers.
- Function: ly:dir? s
A type predicate. The direction
s
is-1
,0
or1
, where-1
represents left or down and1
represents right or up.
- Function: ly:error str rest
A Scheme callable function to issue the error str. The error is formatted with
format
and rest.
- Function: ly:eval-simple-closure delayed closure scm-start scm-end
Evaluate a simple closure with the given delayed argument. If scm-start and scm-end are defined, evaluate it purely with those start and end points.
- Function: ly:event-property sev sym
Get the property sym of stream event mus. If sym is undefined, return
'()
.
- Function: ly:find-accidentals-simple keysig pitch-scm barnum laziness octaveness
Checks the need for an accidental and a ‘restore’ accidental against a key signature. The laziness is the number of bars for which reminder accidentals are used (ie. if laziness is zero, we only cancel accidentals in the same bar; if laziness is three, we cancel accidentals up to three bars after they first appear. octaveness is either
'same-octave
or'any-octave
and it specifies whether accidentals should be canceled in different octaves.
- Function: ly:font-design-size font
Given the font metric font, return the design size, relative to the current output-scale.
- Function: ly:font-get-glyph font name
Return a stencil from font for the glyph named name. If the glyph is not available, return an empty stencil.
Note that this command can only be used to access glyphs from fonts loaded with
ly:system-font-load
; currently, this means either the Emmentaler or Aybabtu fonts, corresponding to the font encodingsfetaMusic
andfetaBraces
, respectively.
- Function: ly:font-glyph-name-to-charcode font name
Return the character code for glyph name in font.
Note that this command can only be used to access glyphs from fonts loaded with
ly:system-font-load
; currently, this means either the Emmentaler or Aybabtu fonts, corresponding to the font encodingsfetaMusic
andfetaBraces
, respectively.
- Function: ly:font-glyph-name-to-index font name
Return the index for name in font.
Note that this command can only be used to access glyphs from fonts loaded with
ly:system-font-load
; currently, this means either the Emmentaler or Aybabtu fonts, corresponding to the font encodingsfetaMusic
andfetaBraces
, respectively.
- Function: ly:font-index-to-charcode font index
Return the character code for index in font.
Note that this command can only be used to access glyphs from fonts loaded with
ly:system-font-load
; currently, this means either the Emmentaler or Aybabtu fonts, corresponding to the font encodingsfetaMusic
andfetaBraces
, respectively.
- Function: ly:font-magnification font
Given the font metric font, return the magnification, relative to the current output-scale.
- Function: ly:font-sub-fonts font
Given the font metric font of an OpenType font, return the names of the subfonts within font.
- Function: ly:format-output context
Given a global context in its final state, process it and return the
Music_output
object in its final state.
- Function: ly:get-all-function-documentation
Get a hash table with all LilyPond Scheme extension functions.
- Function: ly:get-glyph font index
Retrieve a stencil for the glyph numbered index in font.
Note that this command can only be used to access glyphs from fonts loaded with
ly:system-font-load
; currently, this means either the Emmentaler or Aybabtu fonts, corresponding to the font encodingsfetaMusic
andfetaBraces
, respectively.
- Function: ly:get-listened-event-classes
Return a list of all event classes that some translator listens to.
- Function: ly:grob-alist-chain grob global
Get an alist chain for grob grob, with global as the global default. If unspecified,
font-defaults
from the layout block is taken.
- Function: ly:grob-common-refpoint grob other axis
Find the common refpoint of grob and other for axis.
- Function: ly:grob-common-refpoint-of-array grob others axis
Find the common refpoint of grob and others (a grob-array) for axis.
- Function: ly:grob-extent grob refp axis
Get the extent in axis direction of grob relative to the grob refp.
- Function: ly:grob-object grob sym
Return the value of a pointer in grob g of property sym. It returns
'()
(end-of-list) if sym is undefined in g.
- Function: ly:grob-parent grob axis
Get the parent of grob. axis is 0 for the X-axis, 1 for the Y-axis.
- Function: ly:grob-property grob sym deflt
Return the value of a value in grob g of property sym. It returns
'()
(end-of-list) or deflt (if specified) if sym is undefined in g.
- Function: ly:grob-relative-coordinate grob refp axis
Get the coordinate in axis direction of grob relative to the grob refp.
- Function: ly:grob-robust-relative-extent grob refp axis
Get the extent in axis direction of grob relative to the grob refp, or
(0,0)
if empty.
- Function: ly:gulp-file name size
Read the file name, and return its contents in a string. The file is looked up using the search path.
- Function: ly:input-both-locations sip
Return input location in sip as
(file-name first-line first-column last-line last-column)
.
- Function: ly:input-file-line-char-column sip
Return input location in sip as
(file-name line char column)
.
- Function: ly:input-message sip msg rest
Print msg as a GNU compliant error message, pointing to the location in sip. msg is interpreted similar to
format
’s argument, using rest.
- Function: ly:interpret-music-expression mus ctx
Interpret the music expression mus in the global context ctx. The context is returned in its final state.
- Function: ly:interpret-stencil-expression expr func arg1 offset
Parse expr, feed bits to func with first arg arg1 having offset offset.
- Function: ly:item-break-dir it
The break status direction of item it.
-1
means end of line,0
unbroken, and1
beginning of line.
- Function: ly:lexer-keywords lexer
Return a list of
(KEY . CODE)
pairs, signifying the LilyPond reserved words list.
- Function: ly:make-book paper header scores
Make a
\book
of paper and header (which may be#f
as well) containing\scores
.
- Function: ly:make-duration length dotcount num den
length is the negative logarithm (base 2) of the duration: 1 is a half note, 2 is a quarter note, 3 is an eighth note, etc. The number of dots after the note is given by the optional argument dotcount.
The duration factor is optionally given by num and den.
A duration is a musical duration, i.e., a length of time described by a power of two (whole, half, quarter, etc.) and a number of augmentation dots.
- Function: ly:make-global-context output-def
Set up a global interpretation context, using the output block output_def. The context is returned.
- Function: ly:make-global-translator global
Create a translator group and connect it to the global context global. The translator group is returned.
- Function: ly:make-listener callback
Create a listener. Any time the listener hears an object, it will call callback with that object.
callback should take exactly one argument.
- Function: ly:make-moment n d gn gd
Create the rational number with main timing n/d, and optional grace timing gn/gd.
A moment is a point in musical time. It consists of a pair of rationals (m, g), where m is the timing for the main notes, and g the timing for grace notes. In absence of grace notes, g is zero.
- Function: ly:make-music props
Make a C++
Music
object and initialize it with props.This function is for internal use and is only called by
make-music
, which is the preferred interface for creating music objects.
- Function: ly:make-music-function signature func
Make a function to process music, to be used for the parser.
func
is the function, andsignature
describes its arguments.signature
is a list containing eitherly:music?
predicates or other type predicates.
- Function: ly:make-page-permission-marker symbol permission
Return page marker with page breaking and turning permissions.
- Function: ly:make-pango-description-string chain size
Make a
PangoFontDescription
string for the property alist chain at size size.
- Function: ly:make-paper-outputter port format
Create an outputter that evaluates within
output-
format, writing to port.
- Function: ly:make-pitch octave note alter
octave is specified by an integer, zero for the octave containing middle C. note is a number indexing the global default scale, with 0 corresponding to pitch C and 6 usually corresponding to pitch B. alter is a rational number of 200-cent whole tones for alteration.
- Function: ly:make-scale steps
Create a scale. The argument is a vector of rational numbers, each of which represents the number of 200 cent tones of a pitch above the tonic.
- Function: ly:make-simple-closure expr
Make a simple closure. expr should be form of
(func a1 A2 …)
, and will be invoked as(func delayed-arg a1 a2 …)
.
- Function: ly:make-stencil expr xext yext
Stencils are device independent output expressions. They carry two pieces of information:
- A specification of how to print this object. This specification is processed by the output backends, for example ‘scm/output-ps.scm’.
-
The vertical and horizontal extents of the object, given as pairs. If an extent is unspecified (or if you use
(1000 . -1000)
as its value), it is taken to be empty.
- Function: ly:make-stream-event cl proplist
Create a stream event of class cl with the given mutable property list.
- Function: ly:message str rest
A Scheme callable function to issue the message str. The message is formatted with
format
and rest.
- Function: ly:minimal-breaking pb
Break (pages and lines) the
Paper_book
object pb without looking for optimal spacing: stack as many lines on a page before moving to the next one.
- Function: ly:modules-lookup modules sym def
Look up sym in the list modules, returning the first occurence. If not found, return def or
#f
if def isn’t specified.
- Function: ly:music-length mus
Get the length of music expression mus and return it as a
Moment
object.
- Function: ly:music-mutable-properties mus
Return an alist containing the mutable properties of mus. The immutable properties are not available, since they are constant and initialized by the
make-music
function.
- Function: ly:music-property mus sym dfault
Get the property sym of music expression mus. If sym is undefined, return
'()
.
- Function: ly:note-head::stem-attachment font-metric glyph-name
Get attachment in font-metric for attaching a stem to notehead glyph-name.
- Function: ly:optimal-breaking pb
Optimally break (pages and lines) the
Paper_book
object pb to minimize badness in bother vertical and horizontal spacing.
- Function: ly:otf->cff otf-file-name
Convert the contents of an OTF file to a CFF file, returning it as a string.
- Function: ly:otf-font-glyph-info font glyph
Given the font metric font of an OpenType font, return the information about named glyph glyph (a string).
- Function: ly:otf-font-table-data font tag
Extract a table tag from font. Return empty string for non-existent tag.
- Function: ly:output-def-lookup pap sym def
Look up sym in the pap output definition (e.g.,
\paper
). Return the value or def (which defaults to'()
) if undefined.
- Function: ly:page-turn-breaking pb
Optimally break (pages and lines) the
Paper_book
object pb such that page turns only happen in specified places, returning its pages.
- Function: ly:pango-font-physical-fonts f
Return alist of
(ps-name file-name font-index)
lists for Pango font f.
- Function: ly:paper-get-font paper-smob chain
Return a font metric satisfying the font-qualifiers in the alist chain chain. (An alist chain is a list of alists, containing grob properties.)
- Function: ly:paper-score-paper-systems paper-score
Return vector of
paper_system
objects from paper-score.
- Function: ly:paper-system-minimum-distance sys1 sys2
Measure the minimum distance between these two paper-systems, using their stored skylines if possible and falling back to their extents otherwise.
- Function: ly:parser-lookup parser-smob symbol
Look up symbol in parser-smob’s module. Return
'()
if not defined.
- Function: ly:parser-parse-string parser-smob ly-code
Parse the string ly-code with parser-smob. Upon failure, throw
ly-file-failed
key.
- Function: ly:parser-set-note-names parser names
Replace current note names in parser. names is an alist of symbols. This only has effect if the current mode is notes.
- Function: ly:pitch-diff pitch root
Return pitch delta such that pitch transposed by delta equals root.
- Function: ly:pitch-transpose p delta
Transpose p by the amount delta, where delta is relative to middle C.
- Function: ly:position-on-line? sg spos
Return whether pos is on a line of the staff associated with the the grob sg (even on an extender line).
- Function: ly:programming-error str rest
A Scheme callable function to issue the internal warning str. The message is formatted with
format
and rest.
- Function: ly:progress str rest
A Scheme callable function to print progress str. The message is formatted with
format
and rest.
- Function: ly:property-lookup-stats sym
Return hash table with a property access corresponding to sym. Choices are
prob
,grob
, andcontext
.
- Function: ly:relative-group-extent elements common axis
Determine the extent of elements relative to common in the axis direction.
- Function: ly:round-filled-box xext yext blot
Make a
Stencil
object that prints a black box of dimensions xext, yext and roundness blot.
- Function: ly:round-filled-polygon points blot
Make a
Stencil
object that prints a black polygon with corners at the points defined by points (list of coordinate pairs) and roundness blot.
- Function: ly:run-translator mus output-def
Process mus according to output-def. An interpretation context is set up, and mus is interpreted with it. The context is returned in its final state.
Optionally, this routine takes an object-key to to uniquely identify the score block containing it.
- Function: ly:score-embedded-format score layout
Run score through layout (an output definition) scaled to correct output-scale already, returning a list of layout-lines. This function takes an optional
Object_key
argument.
- Function: ly:set-default-scale scale
Set the global default scale. This determines the tuning of pitches with no accidentals or key signatures. The first pitch is C. Alterations are calculated relative to this scale. The number of pitches in this scale determines the number of scale steps that make up an octave. Usually the 7-note major scale.
- Function: ly:set-grob-modification-callback cb
Specify a procedure that will be called every time LilyPond modifies a grob property. The callback will receive as arguments the grob that is being modified, the name of the C++ file in which the modification was requested, the line number in the C++ file in which the modification was requested, the name of the function in which the modification was requested, the property to be changed, and the new value for the property.
- Function: ly:set-middle-C! context
Set the
middleCPosition
variable in context based on the variablesmiddleCClefPosition
and middleCOffset.
- Function: ly:set-property-cache-callback cb
Specify a procedure that will be called whenever lilypond calculates a callback function and caches the result. The callback will receive as arguments the grob whose property it is, the name of the property, the name of the callback that calculated the property, and the new (cached) value of the property.
- Function: ly:solve-spring-rod-problem springs rods length ragged
Solve a spring and rod problem for count objects, that are connected by count-1 springs, and an arbitrary number of rods. count is implicitly given by springs and rods. The springs argument has the format
(ideal, inverse_hook)
and rods is of the form(idx1, idx2, distance)
.length is a number, ragged a boolean.
The function returns a list containing the force (positive for stretching, negative for compressing and
#f
for non-satisfied constraints) followed by spring-count+1 positions of the objects.
- Function: ly:spanner-bound slur dir
Get one of the bounds of slur. dir is
-1
for left, and1
for right.
- Function: ly:staff-symbol-line-thickness grob
Returns the line-thickness of the staff associated with grob.
- Function: ly:start-environment
Return the environment (a list of strings) that was in effect at program start.
- Function: ly:stencil-aligned-to stil axis dir
Align stil using its own extents. dir is a number.
-1
and1
are left and right, respectively. Other values are interpolated (so0
means the center).
- Function: ly:stencil-combine-at-edge first axis direction second padding minimum
Construct a stencil by putting second next to first. axis can be 0 (x-axis) or 1 (y-axis). direction can be -1 (left or down) or 1 (right or up). The stencils are juxtaposed with padding as extra space. If this puts the reference points closer than minimum, they are moved by the latter amount. first and second may also be
'()
or#f
.
- Function: ly:stencil-extent stil axis
Return a pair of numbers signifying the extent of stil in axis direction (
0
or1
for x and y axis, respectively).
- Function: ly:stencil-rotate stil angle x y
Return a stencil stil rotated angle degrees around the relative offset (x, y). E.g. an offset of (-1, 1) will rotate the stencil around the left upper corner.
- Function: ly:stencil-rotate-absolute stil angle x y
Return a stencil stil rotated angle degrees around point (x, y), given in absolute coordinates.
- Function: ly:stencil-translate stil offset
Return a stil, but translated by offset (a pair of numbers).
- Function: ly:stencil-translate-axis stil amount axis
Return a copy of stil but translated by amount in axis direction.
- Function: ly:system-font-load name
Load the OpenType system font ‘name.otf’. Fonts loaded with this command must contain three additional SFNT font tables called
LILC
,LILF
, andLILY
, needed for typesetting musical elements. Currently, only the Emmentaler and the Aybabtu fonts fulfill these requirements.Note that only
ly:font-get-glyph
and derived code (like\lookup
) can access glyphs from the system fonts; text strings are handled exclusively via the Pango interface.
- Function: ly:system-stretch system amount-scm
Stretch the system vertically by the given amount. This must be called before the system is drawn (for example with
ly:system-print
).
- Function: ly:text-dimension font text
Given the font metric in font and the string text, compute the extents of that text in that font. The return value is a pair of number-pairs.
- Function: ly:text-interface::interpret-markup
Convert a text markup into a stencil. Takes three arguments, layout, props, and markup.
layout is a
\layout
block; it may be obtained from a grob withly:grob-layout
. props is an alist chain, i.e. a list of alists. This is typically obtained with(ly:grob-alist-chain (ly:layout-lookup layout 'text-font-defaults))
. markup is the markup text to be processed.
- Function: ly:translator-name trans
Return the type name of the translator object trans. The name is a symbol.
- Function: ly:ttf->pfa ttf-file-name idx
Convert the contents of a TrueType font file to PostScript Type 42 font, returning it as a string. The optional idx argument is useful for TrueType collections (TTC) only; it specifies the font index within the TTC. The default value of idx is 0.
- Function: ly:ttf-ps-name ttf-file-name idx
Extract the PostScript name from a TrueType font. The optional idx argument is useful for TrueType collections (TTC) only; it specifies the font index within the TTC. The default value of idx is 0.
- Function: ly:warning str rest
A Scheme callable function to issue the warning
str
. The message is formatted withformat
andrest
.
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C. Cheat sheet
Syntax | Description | Example |
| durations | |
| augmentation dots | |
| scale | |
| alteration | |
| clefs | |
| time signature | |
| rest | |
| tie | |
| key signature | |
note | raise octave | |
note | lower octave | |
| slur | |
| phrasing slur | |
| beam | |
| more staves | |
| articulations | |
| dynamics | |
| crescendo | |
| decrescendo | |
| chord | |
| upstep | |
| triplets | |
| grace notes | |
| entering lyrics | twinkle |
| printing lyrics | |
| lyric hyphen | |
| chords | |
| printing chord names | |
| polyphony | |
| spacer rests |
[ << Cheat sheet ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ LilyPond command index >> ] | ||
[ < Cheat sheet ] | [ Up : Top ] | [ LilyPond command index > ] |
D. GNU Free Documentation License
Version 1.1, March 2000
Copyright © 2000 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. |
-
PREAMBLE
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other written document free in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others.
This License is a kind of ‘copyleft’, which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.
-
APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
This License applies to any manual or other work that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. The ‘Document’, below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as ‘you’.
A ‘Modified Version’ of the Document means any work containing the Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or translated into another language.
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The ‘Invariant Sections’ are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License.
The ‘Cover Texts’ are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License.
A ‘Transparent’ copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a format whose specification is available to the general public, whose contents can be viewed and edited directly and straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup has been designed to thwart or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent. A copy that is not ‘Transparent’ is called ‘Opaque’.
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML designed for human modification. Opaque formats include PostScript, PDF, proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated HTML produced by some word processors for output purposes only.
The ‘Title Page’ means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, ‘Title Page’ means the text near the most prominent appearance of the work’s title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text.
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VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly display copies.
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COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies of the Document numbering more than 100, and the Document’s license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a publicly-accessible computer-network location containing a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material, which the general network-using public has access to download anonymously at no charge using public-standard network protocols. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to the public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.
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MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
- Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
- List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has less than five).
- State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the publisher.
- Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
- Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright notices.
- Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.
- Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Document’s license notice.
- Include an unaltered copy of this License.
- Preserve the section entitled ‘History’, and its title, and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section entitled ‘History’ in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence.
- Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the ‘History’ section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.
- In any section entitled ‘Acknowledgments’ or ‘Dedications’, preserve the section’s title, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgments and/or dedications given therein.
- Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.
- Delete any section entitled ‘Endorsements’. Such a section may not be included in the Modified Version.
- Do not retitle any existing section as ‘Endorsements’ or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version’s license notice. These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section entitled ‘Endorsements’, provided it contains nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties—for example, statements of peer review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version.
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COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections entitled ‘History’ in the various original documents, forming one section entitled ‘History’; likewise combine any sections entitled ‘Acknowledgments’, and any sections entitled ‘Dedications’. You must delete all sections entitled ‘Endorsements.’
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COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.
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AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, does not as a whole count as a Modified Version of the Document, provided no compilation copyright is claimed for the compilation. Such a compilation is called an ‘aggregate’, and this License does not apply to the other self-contained works thus compiled with the Document, on account of their being thus compiled, if they are not themselves derivative works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one quarter of the entire aggregate, the Document’s Cover Texts may be placed on covers that surround only the Document within the aggregate. Otherwise they must appear on covers around the whole aggregate.
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TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License provided that you also include the original English version of this License. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original English version of this License, the original English version will prevail.
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TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.
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FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License ‘or any later version’ applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.
ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page:
Copyright (C) year your name. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with the Invariant Sections being list their titles, with the Front-Cover Texts being list, and with the Back-Cover Texts being list. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ‘GNU Free Documentation License’. |
If you have no Invariant Sections, write ‘with no Invariant Sections’ instead of saying which ones are invariant. If you have no Front-Cover Texts, write ‘no Front-Cover Texts’ instead of ‘Front-Cover Texts being list’; likewise for Back-Cover Texts.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free software.
[ << GNU Free Documentation License ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ LilyPond index >> ] | ||
[ < GNU Free Documentation License ] | [ Up : Top ] | [ LilyPond index > ] |
E. LilyPond command index
This index lists all the LilyPond commands and keywords with links to those sections of the manual which describe or discuss their use. Each link is in two parts. The first part points to the exact location in the manual where the command or keyword appears; the second part points to the start of the section of the manual in which the command or keyword appears.
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[ << LilyPond command index ] | [Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] | [ >> ] | ||
[ < LilyPond command index ] | [ Up : Top ] | [ > ] |
F. LilyPond index
In addition to all the LilyPond commands and keywords, this index lists musical terms and words which relate to each of them, with links to those sections of the manual which describe or discuss that topic. Each link is in two parts. The first part points to the exact location in the manual where the topic appears; the second part points to the start of the section of the manual where that topic is discussed.
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[Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] |
Footnotes
[1] The lyric ties is implemented with the Unicode character U+203F, so be sure to have a font (Like DejaVuLGC) installed that includes this glyph.
[2] Nicely printed parts are good PR for us, so please leave the tagline if you can.
[3] Scheme tutorial, contains a short tutorial on entering numbers, lists, strings, and symbols in Scheme.
[Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] |
Table of Contents
- 1. Musical notation
- 1.1 Pitches
- 1.2 Rhythms
- 1.3 Expressive marks
- 1.4 Repeats
- 1.5 Simultaneous notes
- 1.6 Staff notation
- 1.7 Editorial annotations
- 1.8 Text
- 2. Specialist notation
- 2.1 Vocal music
- 2.2 Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments
- 2.3 Unfretted string instruments
- 2.4 Fretted string instruments
- 2.5 Percussion
- 2.6 Wind instruments
- 2.7 Chord notation
- 2.8 Ancient notation
- 2.9 World music
- 3. General input and output
- 4. Spacing issues
- 5. Changing defaults
- 5.1 Interpretation contexts
- 5.2 Explaining the Internals Reference
- 5.3 Modifying properties
- 5.4 Useful concepts and properties
- 5.5 Advanced tweaks
- 6. Interfaces for programmers
- A. Literature list
- B. Notation manual tables
- B.1 Chord name chart
- B.2 Common chord modifiers
- B.3 Predefined fretboard diagrams
- B.4 MIDI instruments
- B.5 List of colors
- B.6 The Feta font
- B.7 Note head styles
- B.8 Text markup commands
- B.9 Text markup list commands
- B.10 List of articulations
- B.11 Percussion notes
- B.12 All context properties
- B.13 Layout properties
- B.14 Identifiers
- B.15 Scheme functions
- C. Cheat sheet
- D. GNU Free Documentation License
- E. LilyPond command index
- F. LilyPond index
[Top][Contents][Index][ ? ] |
About This Document
This document was generated by Han-Wen Nienhuys on January 24, 2009 using texi2html 1.79.
The buttons in the navigation panels have the following meaning:
Button | Name | Go to | From 1.2.3 go to |
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[ << ] | FastBack | Beginning of this chapter or previous chapter | 1 |
[] | |||
[Top] | Top | Cover (top) of document | |
[Contents] | Contents | Table of contents | |
[Index] | Index | Index | |
[ ? ] | About | About (help) | |
[] | |||
[ >> ] | FastForward | Next chapter | 2 |
[] | |||
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[ < ] | Back | Previous section in reading order | 1.2.2 |
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[ > ] | Forward | Next section in reading order | 1.2.4 |
where the Example assumes that the current position is at Subsubsection One-Two-Three of a document of the following structure:
- 1. Section One
- 1.1 Subsection One-One
- ...
- 1.2 Subsection One-Two
- 1.2.1 Subsubsection One-Two-One
- 1.2.2 Subsubsection One-Two-Two
- 1.2.3 Subsubsection One-Two-Three <== Current Position
- 1.2.4 Subsubsection One-Two-Four
- 1.3 Subsection One-Three
- ...
- 1.4 Subsection One-Four
- 1.1 Subsection One-One